Дзен буддизм как пишется

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падеж	ед. ч.	мн. ч.
Им.	дзэн-будди́зм	дзэн-будди́змы
Р.	дзэн-будди́зма	дзэн-будди́змов
Д.	дзэн-будди́зму	дзэн-будди́змам
В.	дзэн-будди́зм	дзэн-будди́змы
Тв.	дзэн-будди́змом	дзэн-будди́змами
Пр.	дзэн-будди́зме	дзэн-будди́змах

дзэн—буд—ди́зм

Существительное, неодушевлённое, мужской род, 2-е склонение (тип склонения 1a по классификации А. А. Зализняка).

Корень: -дзэн-; корень: -будд-; суффикс: -изм [Тихонов, 1996].

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• МФА: [ˌd͡zzɛn bʊˈdʲːizm]

Семантические свойства[править]

Значение[править]

1. то же, что дзен-буддизм ◆ Отсутствует пример употребления (см. рекомендации).

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Ближайшее родство

Этимология[править]

Происходит от ??

Фразеологизмы и устойчивые сочетания[править]

Перевод[править]

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Библиография[править]

Для улучшения этой статьи желательно: Добавить пример словоупотребления для значения с помощью {{пример}} Добавить синонимы в секцию «Семантические свойства» Добавить гиперонимы в секцию «Семантические свойства» Добавить сведения об этимологии в секцию «Этимология» Добавить хотя бы один перевод в секцию «Перевод»

дзэн-буддизм

ДЗЕН, дзэн (япон. про­чте­ние кит. «чань», от санскр. dhyāna – «со­зер­ца­ние, ме­ди­та­ция»), на­зва­ние сло­жив­ше­го­ся в Япо­нии на­прав­ле­ния буд­диз­ма, вы­дви­нув­ше­го в центр сво­ей ре­лиг. прак­ти­ки ме­ди­та­цию и во­брав­ше­го в се­бя, на­ря­ду с идея­ми кит. шко­лы чань, эле­мен­ты уче­ния буд­дий­ских школ ма­ха­санг­хи­ков, мад­хь­я­ми­ков, «Чис­той зем­ли», хуа­янь (япон. – Кэ­гон), тянь­тай (япон. – Тэн­дай), чжэнь­янь (япон. – Син­гон), а так­же не­ко­то­рые по­ло­же­ния дао­сиз­ма и кон­фу­ци­ан­ст­ва. Име­ет так­же др. на­име­но­ва­ние – «серд­це (сущ­ность) Буд­ды» (япон. – Бу­син, кит. – Фо синь).

Учение

Д., как и его кит. про­то­тип чань, ос­но­вы­ва­ет­ся на идее мад­хь­я­ми­ков о без­ат­ри­бут­ном, но ис­тин­но-ре­аль­ном Аб­со­лю­те (Буд­да в «те­ле За­ко­на»), яв­ляю­щем­ся суб­стра­том всех еди­нич­ных сущ­но­стей и при­сут­ст­вую­щем в ка­ж­дом ин­ди­ви­де. В ос­но­ве дог­ма­ти­ки Д. ле­жит прин­цип дай­син­ко – «Ве­ли­кая ве­ра» в то, что всё су­щее име­ет ту же «при­ро­ду», что и Буд­да («Смот­ри в свою при­ро­ду и ста­нешь Буд­дой»). Со­от­вет­ст­вен­но, гл. фор­ма ре­лиг. прак­ти­ки Д. – ме­ди­та­ция – пред­став­ля­ет со­бой тре­ни­ров­ку пси­хи­ки и соз­на­ния, при­зван­ную при­вес­ти адеп­та к по­сти­же­нию «не­двой­ст­вен­но­сти» и «еди­но­та­ко­во­сти» все­го Су­ще­го, к об­на­ру­же­нию в се­бе Буд­ды. Гл. ак­цент де­ла­ет­ся на ин­трос­пек­ции, по­зна­нии се­бя «из­нут­ри», «свёр­ты­ва­нии» внеш­не­го ми­ра до соб­ст­вен­но­го внут­рен­не­го про­стран­ст­ва. Цель прак­ти­ки Д. – не от­клю­че­ние от внеш­них впе­чат­ле­ний пу­тём со­сре­до­то­че­ния на оп­ре­де­лён­ном объ­ек­те, не гип­но­тич. транс, а осо­бое со­стоя­ние бодр­ст­вую­ще­го со­зна­ния (япон. – са­то­ри), свя­зан­ное с не­ожи­дан­ным пе­ре­во­ро­том, оп­ро­ки­ды­ваю­щим преж­ние пред­став­ле­ния адеп­та и за­кла­ды­ваю­щим фун­да­мент но­во­го ви­де­ния бы­тия, ко­то­рое ха­рак­те­ри­зу­ет­ся «от­сут­ст­ви­ем вся­ко­го раз­гра­ни­че­ния» и со­еди­не­ни­ем с бес­пре­дель­ным и без­ат­ри­бут­ным Аб­со­лю­том (Д. не при­зна­ёт двой­ст­вен­но­сти да­же на уров­не оп­по­зи­ции кос­мич. на­чал инь – ян, ко­то­рые вос­при­ни­ма­ют­ся как це­ло­ст­ность). С точ­ки зре­ния Д. та­кое «вне­зап­ное про­свет­ле­ние», или ин­туи­тив­ное оза­ре­ние, есть «мгно­вен­ная мысль» (тон­га­ку), ко­то­рая не тре­бу­ет дли­тель­но­го вос­хо­ж­де­ния по мно­го­числ. сту­пе­ням со­вер­шен­ст­ва. В Д. на­стой­чи­во под­чёр­ки­ва­ет­ся воз­мож­ность дос­тичь «про­свет­ле­ния» в этой жиз­ни.

Тео­ре­ти­че­ски Д. от­ка­зы­вал­ся от ка­но­нич. об­ряд­но­сти и ико­но­гра­фич. за­фик­си­ро­ван­но­сти объ­ек­та по­кло­не­ния. Тре­бо­ва­ние внутр. ра­бо­ты, а не пас­сив­ной ве­ры оз­на­ча­ло об­ра­ще­ние к обы­ден­но­му, по­все­днев­но­му, ко­то­рое в лю­бой миг мо­жет стать са­мым важ­ным и са­краль­ным. Учи­тель Д. не про­во­дит раз­гра­ни­че­ния ме­ж­ду ми­ря­ни­ном и мо­на­хом: ка­ж­дый мо­жет дос­тичь «про­свет­ле­ния».

Важ­ней­шая ка­те­го­рия Д. – «без­мыс­лие и без­ду­мие» (му­нэн-му­со), со­стоя­ние не­при­вя­зан­но­сти ра­зу­ма к к.-л. оп­ре­де­лён­ной идее, ко­гда соз­на­ние пре­бы­ва­ет в ис­тин­ном, без­ус­лов­ном по­кое. Это со­стоя­ние оз­на­ча­ет не «уга­са­ние» вся­кой ум­ст­вен­ной и пси­хич. дея­тель­но­сти, а лишь при­ве­де­ние всех ду­хов­ных сил в аб­со­лют­ное рав­но­ве­сие, пол­но­стью ис­клю­чаю­щее лю­бую воз­мож­ность до­ми­ни­ро­ва­ния од­ной мыс­ли над дру­гой.

В Д. осо­бое зна­че­ние при­да­ёт­ся ак­тив­но­му ду­хов­но-прак­тич. ос­вое­нию буд­дий­ско­го уче­ния. В от­ли­чие от боль­шин­ст­ва школ кит. и тра­диц. инд. буд­диз­ма, не­отъ­ем­ле­мым эле­мен­том ре­лиг. прак­ти­ки в шко­лах чань и Д. яв­лял­ся со­вме­ст­ный фи­зич. труд мо­на­хов.

История

В пе­ри­од На­ра (8 в.) и в на­ча­ле эпо­хи Хэй­ан (9 в.) япон­цы, по­бы­вав­шие в Ки­тае, и кит. мо­на­хи, на­прав­ляв­шие­ся в Япо­нию для рас­про­стра­не­ния уче­ния Буд­ды, бы­ли зна­ко­мы с отд. ас­пек­та­ми тео­рии и прак­ти­ки чань и да­же пы­та­лись про­па­ган­ди­ро­вать там чань-буд­дий­скую док­три­ну. Од­на­ко мис­сио­нер­ская дея­тель­ность та­ких про­по­вед­ни­ков, как До­сё (ум. 700), Дао­сю­ань (ум. 760), Гё­хё (ум. 797), Икун (9 в.), зна­чит. ре­зуль­та­тов не при­нес­ла. Хо­тя школа чань ока­зала не­ко­то­рое влия­ние на фор­ми­ро­ва­ние япон. школ Син­гон и Тэн­дай, до кон. 12 в. в Япо­нии о нём поч­ти ни­че­го не зна­ли.

Рас­про­стра­не­ние Д. в Япо­нии (кон. 12 – нач. 13 вв.) в зна­чит. сте­пе­ни бы­ло обу­слов­ле­но на­зре­вав­ши­ми пе­ре­ме­на­ми в ду­хов­ной жиз­ни об­ще­ст­ва эпо­хи Ка­ма­ку­ра (1185–1333). И но­вое во­ен. со­сло­вие са­му­ра­ев, и ста­рая ро­до­вая ари­сто­кра­тия по­лу­чи­ли воз­мож­ность по­сред­ст­вом Д. при­об­щить­ся к дос­ти­же­ни­ям куль­ту­ры Ки­тая, пе­ре­жи­вав­шей в эпо­ху Сун (960–1279) ре­нес­санс. Уче­ние и прак­ти­ка чань, с ко­то­ры­ми япон­цы име­ли воз­мож­ность по­зна­ко­мить­ся в этот пе­ри­од, уже в зна­чит. сте­пе­ни от­ли­ча­лись от идей его ран­них про­по­вед­ни­ков и ха­риз­ма­тич. на­став­ни­ков, с их ас­ке­тиз­мом и про­тес­том про­тив лю­бых форм ри­туа­ла, ав­то­ри­те­тов и догм.

Что­бы дос­тичь ком­про­мис­са с бо­лее влия­тель­ны­ми шко­ла­ми, на­став­ни­ки Д. (осо­бен­но в шко­лах Сёи­цу-ха и Хат­то-ха) на ран­нем эта­пе охот­но за­им­ст­во­ва­ли по­ло­же­ния «тай­но­го уче­ния» (мик­кё) шко­лы Син­гон (пе­ре­ос­мыс­лен­ный япон. ва­ри­ант тан­трич. буд­диз­ма; см. Вад­жрая­на). Из не­го при­шла в Д. и по­лу­чи­ла ши­ро­кое рас­про­стра­не­ние тео­рия со­ку­син дзё­бу­цу – «в этом те­ле стать Буд­дой», яв­ляю­щая­ся од­ной из ос­но­во­по­ла­гаю­щих в уче­нии Ку­кая. От по­сле­до­ва­те­ля Д. тре­бо­ва­лось дос­тиг­нуть «про­свет­ле­ния», на­хо­дясь внут­ри сан­са­ры. В этом от­чёт­ли­во про­яв­ля­ет­ся по­зи­тив­ное от­но­ше­ние Д. к жиз­ни: че­ло­ве­че­ские же­ла­ния долж­ны не по­дав­лять­ся, а на­прав­лять­ся по ду­хов­но­му рус­лу. Из шко­лы Тэн­дай в Д. пе­ре­шёл фун­дам. прин­цип воз­мож­но­сти спа­се­ния всех без ис­клю­че­ния жи­вых су­ществ.

Рас­про­стра­не­ние Д.-буд­диз­ма в Япо­нии свя­за­но с дея­тель­но­стью Мёа­на Эйсая (1141–1215), пат­ри­ар­ха шко­лы Ринд­зай. Ос­но­вой уче­ния Ринд­зай яв­ля­ет­ся по­ло­же­ние о «вне­зап­ном оза­ре­нии». Для его дос­ти­же­ния учи­те­ля Д. при­ме­ня­ли сис­те­му ме­то­дов пси­хоп­рак­ти­ки, сре­ди ко­то­рых осо­бое ме­сто за­ни­мал кан­на Д. – «со­зер­ца­ние коа­нов» (осо­бых па­ра­док­саль­ных тек­стов, на­рочи­то не­ле­пых, ало­гич­ных со­че­та­ний слов) с це­лью раз­ру­ше­ния мыс­ли­тель­ных сте­рео­ти­пов, пе­ре­струк­ту­ри­ро­ва­ния соз­на­ния, под­тал­ки­ва­ния его к ин­туи­тив­но­му вос­при­ятию. Про­па­ган­ду эк­лек­тич. Д. про­дол­жи­ли уче­ни­ки Эй­сая – Гёю (ум. 1241) и Эй­тё (ум. 1247). Гёю со­вме­щал прак­ти­ку Д. и «тай­ное уче­ние» шко­лы Син­гон. Не­по­сред­ст­вен­но в ци­та­де­ли Син­гон – на го­ре Коя – им бы­ла воз­ве­де­на ча­сов­ня Кон­го­сам­май-ин, где уст­раи­ва­лись ри­ту­аль­ные эзо­те­рич. служ­бы. Эй­тё так­же со­еди­нял Д. с уче­ния­ми Тэн­дай и Син­гон.

Вы­со­кой сте­пе­нью син­кре­тиз­ма от­ли­ча­ет­ся уче­ние Эн­ни Бэнъ­э­на (1202–80). Вна­ча­ле он учил­ся Д. у Эй­тё и Гёю, от ко­то­рых унас­ле­до­вал ин­те­рес к тан­трич. буд­диз­му, но при этом под­дер­жи­вал тес­ные кон­так­ты с мо­на­ха­ми школ Тэн­дай и Син­гон, что на­ло­жи­ло от­пе­ча­ток на его уче­ние. В сво­их про­по­ве­дях Эн­ни Бэнъ­эн ак­тив­но раз­ви­вал тео­рию «един­ст­ва трёх уче­ний» (буд­диз­ма, дао­сиз­ма и кон­фу­ци­ан­ст­ва). Му­хон (Син­ти) Ка­ку­син (1207–98), ос­но­ва­тель шко­лы Хат­то-­ха, про­по­ве­до­вал со­вме­ст­ную прак­ти­ку Д. и мик­кё, по­это­му в его мо­насты­ре по­ми­мо еже­днев­ных че­ты­рёх­ра­зо­вых за­ня­тий си­дя­чей ме­ди­та­ци­ей прак­ти­ко­ва­лись ри­туа­лы Син­гон. До­гэн (1200–53), ос­но­ва­тель др. на­прав­ле­ния Д. – шко­лы Со­то (кит. – цао­дун), пред­ло­жил для дос­ти­же­ния са­то­ри при­ме­нять толь­ко клас­сич. «си­дя­чую ме­ди­та­цию» (дза­д­зэн). По мне­нию До­гэ­на, лишь спо­кой­ное си­де­ние, не отя­го­щён­ное ка­ки­ми бы то ни бы­ло раз­мыш­ле­ния­ми и спе­ци­аль­но по­став­лен­ной це­лью, по­зво­ля­ет прак­ти­кую­ще­му реа­ли­зо­вать при­сут­ст­вую­щую в нём от ро­ж­де­ния «сущ­ность» Буд­ды. В про­цес­се дзад­зэн от­да­ва­лось пред­поч­те­ние рав­но­мер­но­му ес­теств. ды­ха­нию. Ни­ка­кие до­пол­ни­тель­ные объ­ек­ты, в т. ч. коа­ны, не ис­поль­зо­ва­лись.

На про­тя­же­нии 13–14 вв. Д. имел пре­ж­де все­го ре­лиг. ок­ра­ску, в нём до­ми­ни­ро­ва­ла шко­ла Ринд­зай. В этот пе­ри­од офор­ми­лись два ос­нов­ных цен­тра Д. – Кио­то и Ка­ма­ку­ра. Гиб­кость и спо­соб­ность к адап­та­ции во мно­гом обу­сло­ви­ли ог­ром­ное влия­ние Д. на ши­ро­кие слои япон. об­ще­ст­ва. С эпо­хи Му­ро­ма­ти (1333–1568) на­ча­лась со­ци­аль­но-­куль­тур­ная ис­то­рия Д. в ка­че­ст­ве сис­те­мы япон. об­раза жиз­ни. На эту эпо­ху при­хо­дит­ся наи­выс­ший рас­цвет Д. в Япо­нии. Дзен­ские мо­на­хи вы­сту­па­ли в ро­ли со­вет­ни­ков в сё­гун­ском и имп. ок­ру­же­нии, к ним об­ра­ща­лись во­ен­ные, гос. чи­нов­ни­ки, ху­дож­ни­ки и по­эты. В 15 в. Д. при­об­рёл осо­бую зна­чи­мость в куль­тур­ной жиз­ни Япо­нии. Он дал тол­чок раз­ви­тию но­вых на­прав­ле­ний в жи­во­пи­си, по­эзии и дра­ма­тур­гии, а так­же бое­вых ис­кусств (кэм­по). Наи­бо­лее вы­даю­щим­ся учи­те­лем Д. ран­не­го пе­рио­да Му­ро­ма­ти яв­ля­ет­ся Му­со Со­сэ­ки (1275–1351), на­стоя­тель ря­да круп­ных дзен­ских хра­мов. Взгля­ды Му­со и его по­сле­до­ва­те­лей на­шли от­ра­же­ние в лит. те­че­нии год­зан бун­га­ку – «ли­те­ра­ту­ра пя­ти гор», по обоб­щён­но­му на­име­но­ва­нию круп­ней­ших буд­дий­ских оби­те­лей. Эта ли­те­ра­ту­ра соз­да­ва­лась на письм. кит. язы­ке (вэнь­янь, япон. – кам­бун). На­ря­ду с хро­но­ло­гич. жиз­не­опи­са­ния­ми (япон. – нэм­пу, кит. – нянь­пу) и «за­пи­ся­ми ре­чей» (япон. – го­ро­ку, кит. – юй­лу) из­вест­ных дзен­ских на­став­ни­ков, фи­лос. тру­да­ми и ком­мен­та­рия­ми к об­ще­буд­дий­ским и дзен­ским трак­та­там, сло­ва­ря­ми дзен­ских тер­ми­нов, сб-ка­ми коа­нов, днев­ни­ка­ми и эс­се, в этой тра­ди­ции зна­чит. ме­сто за­ни­ма­ла по­эзия, где глу­бо­кие фи­лос. сен­тен­ции из­ла­га­лись в ху­дож. фор­ме. Круп­ней­шие пред­ста­ви­те­ли дан­но­го лит. те­че­ния – Ко­кан Си­рэн (1278–1346), Тю­ган Эн­гэ­цу (1300–1375), Ги­до Сю­син (1325–88), Дзэк­кай Тю­син (1336–1405), Ик­кю Со­дзюн (1394–1481).

В нач. 17 в. по­лу­чи­ло рас­про­стра­не­ние ещё од­но на­прав­ле­ние Д. – Оба­ку-сю, по­сле­до­ва­те­ли ко­то­ро­го ис­поль­зо­ва­ли ами­даи­ст­скую (см. Ами­да­изм) прак­ти­ку нэм­бу­цу (кит. нянь­фо – «ду­ма­ние о Буд­де») – ре­ци­та­цию име­ни буд­ды Ами­ды (Ами­таб­хи), ко­то­рый вос­при­ни­мал­ся ими не как транс­цен­ден­таль­ное су­ще­ст­во, а как соб­ст­вен­но «при­ро­да Буд­ды», за­клю­чён­ная в серд­це верую­ще­го. По­это­му и рай Ами­ды трак­то­вал­ся как все­объ­ем­лю­щее про­стран­ст­во «Чис­той зем­ли» в че­ло­ве­че­ских серд­цах. Эле­мен­ты ами­да­из­ма и ре­лиг. дао­сиз­ма при­сут­ст­ву­ют так­же в уче­нии Ха­куи­на Эка­ку (1686–1769) о «внут­рен­нем взгля­де», со­дер­жа­щем эле­мен­ты да­ос­ских тех­ник дос­ти­же­ния бес­смер­тия. Свое­об­раз­но их раз­ви­вая, он свя­зы­вал идею спа­се­ния с об­на­ру­же­ни­ем «Чис­той зем­ли» внут­ри се­бя и с воз­вра­ще­ни­ем во вре­мя ме­ди­та­ции к сво­ей «из­на­чаль­ной чис­той при­ро­де». Т. о., в от­ли­чие от ами­даи­ст­ских школ, Д. де­ла­ет ак­цент на дос­ти­же­нии «про­свет­ле­ния» пу­тём опо­ры на собств. си­лы (дзи­ри­ки). Мас­те­ра Д. позд­не­го Сред­не­ве­ко­вья бы­ли не толь­ко ре­ли­ги­оз­ны­ми, но и куль­тур­ны­ми дея­те­ля­ми. Так, Ха­ку­ин Эка­ку из­вес­тен не толь­ко как ре­лиг. ре­фор­ма­тор, но и как ори­ги­наль­ный ху­дож­ник, кал­ли­граф и по­эт. На­пи­сав мно­же­ст­во трак­та­тов на япон. язы­ке (до не­го буд­дий­ские со­чи­не­ния пи­са­лись на кит. лит. язы­ке), он сде­лал уче­ние Д. дос­туп­ным для ми­рян.

В эпо­ху То­ку­га­ва (17–19 вв.) уси­ле­ние по­зи­ций син­то­из­ма при­ве­ло к ут­ра­те Д. бы­ло­го влия­ния в ре­лиг. сфе­ре. В ре­зуль­та­те уп­ро­ще­ния прак­ти­ки дзен Ха­куи­ном шко­ла Ринд­зай, ко­то­рая пре­ж­де ори­ен­ти­ро­ва­лась на пра­вя­щие кру­ги Кио­то и знать, на­шла опо­ру в про­стом на­ро­де. От­клик в ши­ро­кой сре­де на­хо­ди­ли при­зы­вы Ха­куи­на к ува­жи­тель­но­му от­но­ше­нию к на­ро­ду, к ут­вер­жде­нию кон­фу­ци­ан­ских идеа­лов «гу­ман­но­го прав­ле­ния». В эпо­ху То­ку­га­ва ак­цент в уче­нии Д. пе­ре­но­сил­ся с идеи пас­сив­но­го «про­свет­ле­ния» на ак­тив­ное ду­хов­ное, а так­же пси­хо­фи­зич. со­вер­шен­ст­во­ва­ние на обы­ден­ном уров­не. На­став­ни­ки Д. обу­ча­ли ме­то­дам са­мо­кон­тро­ля, не­об­хо­ди­мым как в ре­лиг. прак­ти­ке со­зер­ца­ния, так и в жиз­нен­но важ­ных для са­му­рай­ско­го со­сло­вия бое­вых ис­кус­ст­вах – фех­то­ва­нии, стрель­бе из лу­ка. Дзен­ские про­по­вед­ни­ки ста­ли до­ка­зы­вать, что уме­ние мгно­вен­но со­сре­до­то­чить­ся на са­мой су­ти лю­бой про­бле­мы име­ет боль­шое зна­че­ние не толь­ко в мо­на­ше­ской, но и в мир­ской жиз­ни. При­ме­не­ние прин­ци­пов Д. к жиз­ни за пре­де­ла­ми мо­на­сты­ря сыг­ра­ло боль­шую роль в фор­ми­ро­ва­нии со­ци­аль­ной пси­хо­ло­гии япон­цев и их по­ве­денч. норм.

Мо­на­сты­ри Д. ста­но­ви­лись в Япо­нии оча­га­ми кон­фу­ци­ан­ских идей, там пе­ре­пи­сы­ва­лись кни­ги кон­фу­ци­ан­ско­го тол­ка, за­ро­ж­да­лось и раз­ви­ва­лось мно­гое из то­го, что впо­след­ст­вии ста­ло не­отъ­ем­ле­мой ча­стью тра­диц. япон. куль­ту­ры: свое­об­раз­ная по­эзия на кит. лит. язы­ке, жи­во­пись, ике­ба­на, иск-во чай­ной це­ре­мо­нии. Д. внёс вклад в раз­ви­тие япон. ар­хи­тек­ту­ры, оп­ре­де­лил мн. на­прав­ле­ния раз­ви­тия япон. лит-ры и иск-ва, про­ни­кая в те их об­лас­ти, где бы­ли важ­ны им­про­ви­за­ция и ин­туи­ция. В мо­на­сты­рях Д. ху­дож­ни­ка­ми-мо­на­ха­ми соз­да­ва­лись мо­но­хром­ные пей­заж­ные свит­ки по кит. об­раз­цам. В них за­пе­чат­ле­ны мо­мен­ты «со­зер­ца­ния» и «про­свет­ле­ния», ос­во­бо­ж­даю­ще­го от все­го пре­хо­дя­ще­го и вре­мен­но­го. Тех­ни­ка их ис­пол­не­ния – суй­бо­ку – ос­но­вы­ва­лась на со­пос­тав­ле­нии ту­ше­вых маз­ков и пя­тен разл. ин­тен­сив­но­сти, их со­от­но­ше­нии со сво­бод­ным про­стран­ст­вом свит­ка. Вы­пол­нен­ные та­ки­ми круп­ны­ми мас­те­ра­ми, как Мо­ку­кан (сер. 14 в.), Као Нин­га (ум. 1345), Бом­по (1348–1426), эти свит­ки са­ми ста­но­ви­лись пред­ме­том ре­лиг. со­зер­ца­ния. До 15 в. мо­но­хром­ная жи­во­пись це­ли­ком ос­та­ва­лась в пре­де­лах дзен­ских мо­на­сты­рей. Од­на из наи­бо­лее зна­ме­ни­тых её школ сло­жи­лась при дзен­ском мон. Сё­ко­куд­зи в Кио­то. Позд­нее, в 17 в., поя­ви­лась са­мо­быт­ная «жи­во­пись дзен­ских мо­на­хов» (дзен­га). В 14–16 вв. эс­те­тич. ка­но­ны Д.-буд­диз­ма ока­за­ли ог­ром­ное влия­ние на са­до­во-пар­ко­вое иск-во. Япон. сад умень­ша­ет­ся в раз­ме­рах и пред­на­зна­ча­ет­ся уже не для про­гу­лок, а для со­зер­ца­ния. Соз­да­вая по­доб­ные «фи­ло­соф­ские са­ды», дзен­ские мо­на­хи стре­ми­лись пе­ре­дать своё пе­ре­жи­ва­ние бес­ко­неч­но­сти при­ро­ды, вре­ме­ни, про­стран­ст­ва, идеи Буд­ды.

В 20 в., бла­го­да­ря пре­ж­де все­го уси­ли­ям Т. Д. Суд­зу­ки, Д. стал дос­тоя­ни­ем зап. куль­ту­ры. Мно­гие зап. фи­ло­со­фы, тео­ло­ги, пи­са­те­ли, ху­дож­ни­ки, пси­хо­ло­ги и му­зы­кан­ты про­яв­ля­ли ин­те­рес к Д., пы­та­лись ис­поль­зо­вать его идеи в собств. твор­че­ст­ве. От­го­ло­ски Д. мож­но об­на­ру­жить в про­из­ве­де­ни­ях Г. Гес­се, Дж. Сэ­линд­же­ра, в по­эзии А. Гинс­бер­га и Г. Снай­де­ра, в жи­во­пи­си В. Ван Го­га и А. Ма­тис­са, в фи­ло­со­фии А. Швей­це­ра, в му­зы­ке Г. Ма­ле­ра и Дж. Кей­джа, в тру­дах по пси­хо­ло­гии К. Г. Юн­га и Э. Фром­ма. В 1960-х гг. идеи Д. ста­ли чрез­вы­чай­но вос­тре­бо­ван­ны­ми в США.

В нач. 21 в. Д. не яв­ля­ет­ся мас­со­вым на­прав­ле­ни­ем япон. буд­диз­ма, но про­дол­жа­ет со­хра­нять проч­ные по­зи­ции в ду­хов­ной и куль­тур­ной жиз­ни япон­цев. Об­щее чис­ло его по­сле­до­ва­те­лей со­став­ля­ет ок. 10 млн. чел. Мо­на­сты­ри и цен­тры по изу­че­нию Д. су­ще­ст­ву­ют так­же за пре­де­ла­ми Япо­нии, пре­ж­де все­го в США и Зап. Ев­ро­пе.

1. религ. разновидность буддизма, окончательно сформировавшаяся в Китае в V–VI веках под большим влиянием даосизма

Все значения слова «дзен-буддизм»

• дзэн-буддизм
• сикхизм
• ненасилие
• дао
• ушу
• (ещё синонимы…)

дзен-буддизм

Правильно слово пишется: дзен-будди́зм

Сложное слово, состоящее из 2 частей.

дзен

Ударение падает на слог с единственной гласной буквой в слове.
Всего в слове 4 буквы, 1 гласная, 3 согласных, 1 слог.
Гласные: е;
Согласные: д, з, н.

буддизм

Ударение падает на 2-й слог с буквой и.
Всего в слове 7 букв, 2 гласных, 5 согласных, 2 слога.
Гласные: у, и;
Согласные: б, д, д, з, м.

Номера букв в слове

Номера букв в слове «дзен-буддизм» в прямом и обратном порядке:

• 11
  д
  1
• 10
  з
  2
• 9
  е
  3
• 8
  н
  4
•  
  —
   
• 7
  б
  5
• 6
  у
  6
• 5
  д
  7
• 4
  д
  8
• 3
  и
  9
• 2
  з
  10
• 1
  м
  11

Слово «дзен-буддизм» состоит из 11-ти букв и 1-го дефиса.

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This is a background article on Zen. For psychological aspects see:

• Zen and psychotherapy

Zen (Japanese: 禅) from Dhyana (Sanskrit) via Chán (Chinese: 禅|禅) and Sŏn (Korean: 선|선) is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism notable for its emphasis on mindful acceptance of the present moment, spontaneous action, and letting go of self-conscious, judgmental thinking^[1][2]

It emphasizes dharma practice and experiential wisdom—particularly as realized in the form of meditation known as zazen—in the attainment of awakening. As such, it de-emphasizes both theoretical knowledge and the study of religious texts in favor of direct individual experience of one’s own true nature.

A broader term is the Sanskrit word «dhyana», which exists also in other religions in India.

The emergence of Chán (Zen) as a distinct school of Buddhism was first documented in China in the 7th century CE. It is thought to have developed as an amalgam of various currents in Mahāyāna Buddhist thought—among them the Yogācāra and Madhyamaka philosophies and the Prajñāpāramitā literature—and of local traditions in China, particularly Taoism and Huáyán Buddhism. From China, Chán subsequently spread southwards to Vietnam and eastwards to Korea and Japan. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Zen also began to establish a notable presence in North America and Europe.

The Five Houses of Zen

Developing primarily in the Tang dynasty in China, Classic Zen is traditionally divided historically into the Five Houses of Zen or five «schools». These were not originally regarded as «schools,» or «sects,» but historically, they have come to be understood that way. In their early history, the schools were not institutionalized, they were without dogma, and the teachers which founded them were not idolized.

The Five Houses of Zen are^[3] :

• Kuei-Yang, named after masters Kuei-shan Ling-yu (771-854) and Yang-Shen Hui-chi (813-890)
• Lin-chi, from which the modern Rinzai, Obaku, and (now defunct) Fuke schools were formed, named after master Lin-chi I-hsuan (d. 866)
• Tsao-tung, from which the modern Soto school was formed, named after masters Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807-869) and Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi (840-901)
• Yun-men, named after master Yun-men Wen-yen (d. 949)
• Fa-yen, named after master Fa-yen Wen-i (885-958)

Most Zen lineages throughout Asia and the rest of the world originally grew from or were heavily influenced by the original five houses of Zen.

Zen teachings and practices

Basis

File:Huineng Tearing Sutras.jpg

Zen asserts, as do other schools in Mahayana Buddhism, that all sentient beings have Buddha-nature, the universal nature of inherent wisdom (Sanskrit prajna) and virtue, and emphasizes that Buddha-nature is nothing other than the nature of mind itself. The aim of Zen practice is to discover this Buddha-nature within each person, through meditation and mindfulness of daily experiences. Zen practitioners believe that this provides new perspectives and insights on existence, which ultimately lead to enlightenment.

In distinction to many other Buddhist sects, Zen dis-emphasizes reliance on religious texts and verbal discourse on metaphysical questions. Zen holds that these things lead the practitioner to seek external answers, rather than searching within their own minds for the direct intuitive apperception of Buddha-nature. This search within goes under various terms such as “introspection,” “a backward step,” “turning-about,” or “turning the eye inward.”

In this sense, Zen, as a means to deepen the practice and in contrast to many other religions, could be seen as fiercely anti-philosophical, iconoclastic, anti-prescriptive and anti-theoretical. The importance of Zen’s non-reliance on written words is often misunderstood as being against the use of words. However, Zen is deeply rooted in both the scriptural teachings of the Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama and in Mahāyāna Buddhist thought and philosophy. What Zen emphasizes is that the awakening taught by the Buddha came through his meditation practice, not from any words that he read or discovered, and so it is primarily through meditation that others too may awaken to the same insights as the Buddha.

The teachings on the technique and practice of turning the eye inward are found in many suttas and sutras of Buddhist canons, but in its beginnings in China, Zen primarily referred to the Mahayana Sutras and especially to the Lankavatara Sutra. Ironically, since Bodhidharma taught the turning-about techniques of dhyana with reference to the Lankavatara Sutra, the Zen school was initially identified with that sutra. It was in part through reaction to such limiting identification with one text that Chinese Zen cultivated its famous non-reliance on written words and independence of any one scripture. However, a review of the teachings of the early Zen masters clearly reveals that they were all well versed in various scriptures. For example, in The Platform Sutra of the Sixth ancestor and founder Huineng, this famously «illiterate» Zen master cites and explains the Diamond Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Shurangama Sutra, and the Lankavatara Sutra.

When Buddhism came to China the doctrine of the three core practices or trainings, the training in virtue and discipline in the precepts (Sanskrit Śīla), the training in mind through meditation (dhyana or jhana) sometimes called concentration (samadhi), and the training in discernment and wisdom (prajna), was already established in the Pali canon.(http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.088.than.html#trainings) In this context, as Buddhism became adapted to Chinese culture, three types of teachers with expertise in each training practice developed. Vinaya masters were versed in all the rules of discipline for monks and nuns. Dhyana masters were versed in the practice of meditation. And Dharma, i.e., teaching or sutra, masters were versed in the Buddhist texts. Monastaries and practice centers were created that tended to focus on either the vinaya and training of monks or the teachings focused on one scripture or a small group of texts. Dhyana or Chan masters tended to practice in solitary hermitages or to be associated with the Vinaya training monasteries or sutra teaching centers.

After Bodhidharma’s arrival in the late fifth century, the subsequent dhyana-chan masters who were associated with his teaching line consolidated around the practice of meditation and the feeling that mere observance of the rules of discipline or the intellectual teachings of the scriptures did not emphasize enough the actual practice and personal experience of the Buddha’s meditation that led to the Buddha’s awakening. Awakening like the Buddha, and not merely following rules or memorizing texts became the watchword of the dhyana-chan practitioners. Within 200 years after Bodhidharma at the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, by the time of the fifth generation Chan ancestor and founder Daman Hongren (601-674), the Zen of Bodhidharma’s successors had become well established as a separate school of Buddhism and the true Zen school.^[4]

The core of Zen practice is seated meditation, widely known by its Japanese name Zazen, and recalls both the posture in which the Buddha is said to have achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, and the elements of mindfulness and concentration which are part of the Eightfold Path as taught by the Buddha. All of the Buddha’s fundamental teachings—among them the Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths, the idea of dependent origination, the five precepts, the five aggregates, and the three marks of existence—also make up important elements of the perspective that Zen takes for its practice. While Buddhists generally revere certain places as a Bodhimandala (circle or place of enlightenment) in Zen wherever one sits in true meditation is said to be a Bodhimandala.

Additionally, as a development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Zen draws many of its basic driving concepts, particularly the bodhisattva ideal, from that school. Uniquely Mahāyāna figures such as Guānyīn, Mañjuśrī, Samantabhadra, and Amitābha are venerated alongside the historical Buddha. Despite Zen’s emphasis on transmission independent of scriptures, it has drawn heavily on the Mahāyāna sūtras, particularly the Heart of Perfect Wisdom Sūtra, Hredaya Pranyaparamita the Sūtra of the Perfection of Wisdom of the Diamond that Cuts through Illusion, The Vajrachedika Pranyaparamita the Lankavatara Sūtra, and the «Samantamukha Parivarta» section of the Lotus Sūtra.

Zen has also itself paradoxically produced a rich corpus of written literature which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Among the earliest and most widely studied of the specifically Zen texts, dating back to at least the 9th century CE, is the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, sometimes attributed to Huìnéng. Others include the various collections of kōans and the Shōbōgenzō of Dōgen Zenji.

Zen training emphasizes daily practice, along with intensive periods of meditation. Practicing with others is an integral part of Zen practice. D.T. Suzuki wrote that aspects of this life are: a life of humility; a life of labor; a life of service; a life of prayer and gratitude; and a life of meditation.^[5] The Chinese Chan master Baizhang (720–814 CE) left behind a famous saying which had been the guiding principle of his life, «A day without work is a day without food.»^[6]

Zen meditation

Zazen

Main article: Zazen

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As the name Zen implies, Zen sitting meditation is the core of Zen practice and is called zazen in Japanese (坐禅; Chinese tso-chan [Wade-Giles] or zuòchán [Pinyin]). During zazen, practitioners usually assume a sitting position such as the lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza postures. To regulate the mind, awareness is directed towards counting or watching the breath or put in the energy center below the navel (Chinese dan tian, Japanese tanden or hara). [6] Often, a square or round cushion (zafu, 座蒲) placed on a padded mat (zabuton, 座布団) is used to sit on; in some cases, a chair may be used. In Japanese Rinzai Zen tradition practitioners typically sit facing the center of the room; while Japanese Soto practitioners traditionally sit facing a wall.

In Soto Zen, shikantaza meditation («just-sitting», 只管打坐) that is, a meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without interference. Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of this practice can be found throughout Dōgen’s Shōbōgenzō, as for example in the «Principles of Zazen»^[7] and the «Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen».^[8] Rinzai Zen, instead, emphasizes attention to the breath and koan practice (q.v.).

The amount of time spent daily in zazen by practitioners varies. Dōgen recommends that five minutes or more daily is beneficial for householders. The key is daily regularity, as Zen teaches that the ego will naturally resist, and the discipline of regularity is essential. Practicing Zen monks may perform four to six periods of zazen during a normal day, with each period lasting 30 to 40 minutes. Normally, a monastery will hold a monthly retreat period (sesshin), lasting between one and seven days. During this time, zazen is practiced more intensively: monks may spend four to eight hours in meditation each day, sometimes supplemented by further rounds of zazen late at night.

Meditation as a practice can be applied to any posture. Walking meditation is called kinhin. Successive periods of zazen are usually interwoven with brief periods of walking meditation to relieve the legs.

Sesshin

Main article: Sesshin

Zazen practice in monasteries is known as sesshin. One distinctive aspect of Zen meditation in groups is the use of the keisaku, a flat wooden stick or slat used to keep meditators focused and awake.

The Zen teacher

Main article: Zen teacher

Because the Zen tradition emphasizes direct communication over scriptural study, the Zen teacher has traditionally played a central role. Generally speaking, a Zen teacher is a person ordained in any tradition of Zen to teach the Dharma, guide students of meditation, and perform rituals.
An important concept for all Zen sects is the notion of dharma transmission: the claim of a line of authority that goes back to Śākyamuni Buddha via the teachings of each successive master to each successive student. This concept relates to the ideas expressed in a description of Zen attributed to Bodhidharma:

A special transmission outside the scriptures; (教外別傳)

No dependence upon words and letters; (不立文字)

Direct pointing to the human mind; (直指人心)

Seeing into one’s own nature and attaining Buddhahood. (見性成佛)^[9]

The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki (1949:168) contends was invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige.

John McRae’s study “Seeing Through Zen” explores this assertion of lineage as a distinctive and central aspect of Zen Buddhism. He writes of this “genealogical” approach so central to Zen’s self-understanding, that while not without precedent, has unique features. It is “relational (involving interaction between individuals rather than being based solely on individual effort), generational (in that it is organized according to parent-child, or rather teacher-student, generations) and reiterative (i.e., intended for emulation and repetition in the lives of present and future teachers and students.”

McRae offers a detailed criticism of lineage, but he also notes it is central to Zen. So much so that it is hard to envision any claim to Zen that discards claims of lineage. Therefore, for example, in Japanese Soto, lineage charts become a central part of the Sanmatsu, the documents of Dharma transmission. And it is common for daily chanting in Zen temples and monasteries to include the lineage of the school.

In Japan during the Tokugawa period (1600–1868), some came to question the lineage system and its legitimacy. The Zen master Dokuan Genko (1630–1698), for example, openly questioned the necessity of written acknowledgment from a teacher, which he dismissed as «paper Zen.» Quite a number of teachers in Japan during the Tokugawa period did not adhere to the lineage system; these were termed mushi dokugo (無師獨悟, «independently enlightened without a teacher») or jigo jisho (自悟自証, «self-enlightened and self-certified»). Modern Zen Buddhists also consider questions about the dynamics of the lineage system, inspired in part by academic research into the history of Zen.

Honorific titles associated with teachers typically include, in Chinese, Fashi (法師) or Chanshi (禪師); in Korean, Sunim (an honorofic for a monk or nun) and Seon Sa (선사); in Japanese, Osho (和尚), Roshi (老師), or Sensei (先生); and in Vietnamese, Thầy. Note that many of these titles are not specific to Zen but are used generally for Buddhist priests; some, such as sensei are not even specific to Buddhism.

The English term Zen master is often used to refer to important teachers, especially ancient and medieval ones. However, there is no specific criterion by which one may be called a Zen master. The term is less common in reference to modern teachers. In the Open Mind Zen School, English terms have been substituted for the Japanese ones to avoid confusion of this issue. «Assistant Zen Teacher» is a person authorized to begin to teach, but still under the supervision of his teacher. «Zen Teacher» applies to one authorized to teach without further direction, and «Zen Master» refers to one who is a Zen Teacher and has founded his or her own teaching center.

Koan practice

Main article: Koan

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Zen Buddhists may practice koan inquiry during sitting meditation (zazen), walking meditation, and throughout all the activities of daily life. A koan (literally «public case») is a story or dialogue, generally related to Zen or other Buddhist history; the most typical form is an anecdote involving early Chinese Zen masters. Koan practice is particularly emphasized by the Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.^[10]

These anecdotes involving famous Zen teachers are a practical demonstration of their wisdom, and can be used to test a student’s progress in Zen practice. Koans often appear to be paradoxical or linguistically meaningless dialogues or questions. But to Zen Buddhists the koan is «the place and the time and the event where truth reveals itself»^[11] unobstructed by the oppositions and differientiations of language. Answering a koan requires a student to let go of conceptual thinking and of the logical way we order the world, so that like creativity in art, the appropriate insight and response arises naturally and spontaneously in the mind.

Koans and their study developed in China within the context of the open questions and answers of teaching sessions conducted by the Chinese Zen masters. Today, the Zen student’s mastery of a given koan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan (独参), daisan (代参), or sanzen (参禅)). Zen teachers advise that the problem posed by a koan is to be taken quite seriously, and to be approached as literally a matter of life and death. While there is no unique answer to a koan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the koan and of Zen through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right direction. There are also various commentaries on koans, written by experienced teachers, that can serve as a guide. These commentaries are also of great value to modern scholarship on the subject.

Chanting and liturgy

A practice in many Zen monasteries and centers is a daily liturgy service. Practitioners chant major sutras such as the Heart Sutra, chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra (often called the «Avalokiteshvara Sutra»), the Song of the Jewel Mirror Awareness, the Great Compassionate Heart Dharani (Daihishin Dharani),^[12] and other minor mantras.

The Butsudan is the altar in a monastery where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas. The same term is also used in Japanese homes for the altar where one prays to and communicates with deceased family members. As such, reciting liturgy in Zen can be seen as a means to connect with the Bodhisattvas of the past. Liturgy is often used during funerals, memorials, and other special events as means to invoke the aid of supernatural powers.

Chanting usually centers on major Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara (see also Guan Yin) and Manjusri. According to Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas are celestial beings which have taken extraordinary vows to liberate all beings from Samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth), while remaining in Samsara themselves. Since the Zen practitioner’s aim is to walk the Bodhisattva path, chanting can be used as a means to connect with these beings and realize this ideal within oneself. By repeatedly chanting the Avalokiteshvara sutra (観世音菩薩普門品 Kanzeon Bosatsu Fumonbon^?), for example, one instills the Bodhisattva’s ideals into ones mind. The ultimate goal is given in the end of the sutra, which states,
«In the morning, be one with Avalokiteshvara,
In the evening, be one with Avalokiteshvara,»^[13],
Through the realization of the Emptiness of oneself, and the Mahayanist ideal of Buddha-nature in all things, one understands that there is no difference between the cosmic bodhisattva and oneself. The wisdom and compassion of the Boddhisattva one is chanting to is seen to equal the inner wisdom and compassion of the practitioner. Thus, the duality between subject and object, practitioner and Bodhisattva, chanter and sutra is ended.

One modern day Roshi justifies the use of chanting sutras by referring to Zen master Dōgen.^[14], Dōgen is known to have refuted the statement «Painted rice cakes will not satisfy hunger». This means that sutras, which are just symbols like painted rice cakes, cannot truly satisfy one’s spiritual hunger. Dōgen, however, saw that there is no separation between metaphor and reality. «There is no difference between paintings, rice cakes, or any thing at all».^[15] The symbol and the symbolized were inherently the same, and thus only the sutras could truly satisfy one’s spiritual needs.

To understand this non-dual relationship experientially, one is told to practice liturgy intimately. ^[16] In distinguishing between ceremony and liturgy, Dōgen states, «In ceremony there are forms and there are sounds, there is understanding and there is believing. In liturgy there is only intimacy.» The practitioner is instructed to listen to and speak liturgy not just with one sense, but with one’s «whole body-and-mind». By listening with one’s entire being, one eliminates the space between the self and the liturgy. Thus, Dōgen’s instructions are to «listen with the eye and see with the ear». By focusing all of one’s being on one specific practice, duality is transcended. Dōgen says, «Let go of the eye, and the whole body-and-mind are nothing but the eye; let go of the ear, and the whole universe is nothing but the ear.» Chanting intimately thus allows one to experience a non-dual reality. The liturgy used is a tool to allow the practitioner to transcend the old conceptions of self and other. In this way, intimate liturgy practice allows one to realize Sunyata, or emptiness, which is at the heart of Buddhist teachings.

Other techniques

There are other techniques common in the Zen tradition which seem unconventional and whose purpose is said to be to shock a student in order to help him or her let go of habitual activities of the mind. Some of these are common today, while others are found mostly in anecdotes. These include the loud belly shout known as katsu. It is common in many Zen traditions today for Zen teachers to have a stick with them during formal ceremonies which is a symbol of authority and which can be also used to strike on the table during a talk. The now defunct Fuke Zen sect was also well-known for practicing suizen, meditation with the shakuhachi, which some Zen Buddhists today also practice.

Mythology

Within Zen, and thus from an emic perspective, the origins of Zen Buddhism are ascribed to what is called the Flower Sermon, in which Śākyamuni Buddha is supposed to have passed on special insight to the disciple Mahākāśyapa. The sermon itself was a wordless one in which Śākyamuni merely held up a flower before the assembled disciples, among whom there was no reaction apart from Mahākāśyapa, who smiled. The smile is said to have signified Mahākāśyapa’s understanding, and Śākyamuni acknowledged this by saying:

I possess the true Dharma eye, the marvelous mind of Nirvana, the true form of the formless, the subtle dharma gate that does not rest on words or letters but is a special transmission outside of the scriptures. This I entrust to Mahākāśyapa.^[17]

Thus, a way within Buddhism developed which concentrated on direct experience rather than on rational creeds or revealed scriptures. Zen is a method of meditative religion which seeks to enlighten people in the manner that the Mahākāśyapa experienced.^[18]

In the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) of Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665-713)^[19]—one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, the 6th patriarch of Chan Buddhism—it is written that Bodhidharma was the 28th patriarch in a line of descent from Mahākāśyapa, a disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha, and the first patriarch of Chan Buddhism:

Mahākāśyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission;

Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West;

The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country;

And Bodhidharma became the First Father here:

His mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers,

And by them many minds came to see the Light.^[20]

The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki (1949:168) contends was invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige. The earliest source for the legend of the «Flower sermon» is from 11th century China.^[21].

Early history

Chán developed as an amalgam of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism.^[22] Dumoulin (2005) argues that Chán also has roots in yogic practices, specifically kammaṭṭhāna, the consideration of objects, and kasiṇa, total fixation of the mind.

The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by interaction and syncretism with Taoic faiths, Taoism in particular.^[23] Buddhism’s scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary, because it was originally seen as a kind of foreign Taoism.^[24] In the Tang period, Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chán Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism.^[25]

The establishment of Chán is traditionally credited to the Indian prince turned monk Bodhidharma (formerly dated ca 500 CE, but now ca early fifth century^[26]), who is recorded as having come to China to teach a «special transmission outside scriptures» which «did not stand upon words». Bodhidharma settled in the kingdom of Wei where he took among his disciples Daoyu and Huike. Early on in China Bodhidharma’s teaching was referred to as the «One Vehicle sect of India.»^[27] The One Vehicle (Sanskrit Ekayāna), also known as the Supreme Vehicle or the Buddha Vehicle, was taught in the Lankavatara Sutra which was closely associated with Bodhidharma. However the label «One Vehicle sect» did not become widely used, and Bodhidharma’s teaching became known as the Chan sect for its primary focus on chan training and practice. Shortly before his death, Bodhidharma appointed Huike to succeed him, making Huike the first Chinese born patriarch and the second patriarch of Chán in China. Bodhidharma is said to have passed three items to Huike as a sign of transmission of the Dharma: a robe, a bowl, and a copy of the Lankavatara Sutra. The transmission then passed to the second patriarch (Huike), the third (Sengcan), the fourth patriarch (Dao Xin) and the fifth patriarch (Hongren).

The sixth and last patriarch, Huineng (638–713), was one of the giants of Chán history, and all surviving schools regard him as their ancestor. However, the dramatic story of Huineng’s life tells that there was a controversy over his claim to the title of patriarch. After being chosen by Hongren, the fifth patriarch, Huineng had to flee by night to Nanhua Temple in the south to avoid the wrath of Hongren’s jealous senior disciples. Later, in the middle of the 8th century, monks claiming to be among the successors to Huineng, calling themselves the Southern school, cast themselves in opposition to those claiming to succeed Hongren’s then publicly recognized student Shenxiu (神秀). It is commonly held that at this point—the debates between these rival factions—that Chán enters the realm of fully documented history. The Southern school eventually became predominant and their rivals died out. Modern scholarship, however, has questioned this narrative.

The following are the six Patriarchs of Chán in China as listed in traditional sources:

1. Bodhidharma (बोधिधर्म) about 440 — about 528
2. Huike (慧可) 487 — 593
3. Sengcan (僧燦) ? — 606
4. Daoxin (道信) 580 — 651
5. Hongren (弘忍) 601 — 674
6. Huineng (慧能) 638 — 713

Zen in China (Chán)

In the following centuries, Chán grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism and, despite its «transmission beyond the scriptures», produced the largest body of literature in Chinese history of any sect or tradition. The teachers claiming Huineng’s posterity began to branch off into numerous different schools, each with their own special emphasis, but all of which kept the same basic focus on meditational practice, personal instruction and personal experience.

During the late Tang and the Song periods, the tradition continued, as a wide number of eminent teachers, such as Mazu (Wade-Giles: Ma-tsu; Japanese: Baso), Shitou (Shih-t’ou; Japanese: Sekito), Baizhang (Pai-chang; Japanese: Hyakujo), Huangbo (Huang-po; Jap.: Obaku), Linji (Lin-chi; Jap.: Rinzai), and Yunmen (Jap.: Ummon) developed specialized teaching methods, which would variously become characteristic of the five houses (五家) of Chán. The traditional five houses were Caodong (曹洞宗), Linji (臨濟宗), Guiyang (潙仰宗), Fayan (法眼宗), and Yunmen (雲門宗). This list does not include earlier schools such as the Hongzhou (洪州宗) of Mazu.

Over the course of Song Dynasty (960–1279), the Guiyang, Fayan, and Yunmen schools were gradually absorbed into the Linji. During the same period, the various developments of Chán teaching methods crystallized into the gong-an (koan) practice which is unique to this school of Buddhism. According to Miura and Sasaki, «it was during the lifetime of Yüan-wu‘s successor, Ta-hui Tsung-kao 大慧宗杲 (Daie Sōkō, 1089-1163) that Koan Zen entered its determinative stage.»^[28] Gong-an practice was prevalent in the Linji school, to which Yuanwu and Ta-hui (pinyin: Dahui) belonged, but it was also employed on a more limited basis by the Caodong school. The teaching styles and words of the classical masters were collected in such important texts as the Blue Cliff Record (1125) of Yuanwu, The Gateless Gate (1228) of Wumen, both of the Linji lineage, and the Book of Equanimity (1223) of Wansong, of the Caodong lineage. These texts record classic gong-an cases, together with verse and prose commentaries, which would be studied by later generations of students down to the present.

Chán continued to be influential as a religious force in China, and thrived in the post-Song period; with a vast body of texts being produced up and through the modern period. While traditionally distinct, Chán was taught alongside Pure Land Buddhism in many Chinese Buddhist monasteries. In time much of the distinction between them was lost, and many masters taught both Chán and Pure Land. Chán Buddhism enjoyed something of a revival in the Ming Dynasty with teachers such as Hanshan Deqing (憨山德清), who wrote and taught extensively on both Chán and Pure Land Buddhism; Miyun Yuanwu (密雲圓悟), who came to be seen posthumously as the first patriarch of the Obaku Zen school; as well as Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲株宏) and Ouyi Zhixu (藕溢智旭).

After further centuries of decline, Chán was revived again in the early 20th century by Hsu Yun, a well-known figure of 20th century Chinese Buddhism. Many Chán teachers today trace their lineage back to Hsu Yun, including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chán in the West where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st century.

It was severely repressed in China during the recent modern era with the appearance of the People’s Republic, but has more recently been re-asserting itself on the mainland, and has a significant following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.
^[29]

Zen in Japan

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The schools of Zen that currently exist in Japan are the Sōtō (曹洞), Rinzai (臨済), and Obaku (黃檗). Of these, Sōtō is the largest and Obaku the smallest. Rinzai is itself divided into several subschools based on temple affiliation, including Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji.

Although the Japanese had known Zen-like practices for centuries (Taoism and Shinto), it was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which is known in Japan as Rinzai. Decades later, Nanpo Jomyo (南浦紹明) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai. In 1215, Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai’s, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong. The Obaku lineage was introduced in the 17th century by Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming Dynasty to the Manchus, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Obaku school was named for Mount Obaku (Chinese: Huangboshan), which had been Ingen’s home in China.

Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Daiun Harada and Shunryu Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attain realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest’s function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]}.

The Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers— has been criticized for its involvement in Japanese militarism and nationalism during World War II and the preceding period. A notable work on this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian Victoria, an American-born Sōtō priest. At the same time, however, one must be aware that this involvement was by no means limited to the Zen school: all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist state. What may be most striking, though, as Victoria has argued, is that many Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of «world peace» were open nationalists in the inter-war years [7]. And some of them, like Haku’un Yasutani, the founder of the Sanbo Kyodan School, even voiced their anti-semitic and nationalistic opinions after World War II. [8], [9]

This openness has allowed non-Buddhists to practice Zen, especially outside of Asia, and even for the curious phenomenon of an emerging Christian Zen lineage, as well as one or two lines that call themselves «nonsectarian.» With no official governing body, it’s perhaps impossible to declare any authentic lineage «heretical.» Some schools emphasize lineage and trace their line of teachers back to China, Japan, Korea, or Vietnam; other schools do not^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]}.

Zen in Vietnam (Thiền)

Thiền Buddhism (禪宗 Thiền Tông) is the Vietnamese name for the school of Zen Buddhism. Thien is ultimately derived from Chan Zong 禪宗 (simplified, 禅宗), itself a derivative of the Sanskrit «Dhyāna«.

According to traditional accounts of Vietnam, in 580, an Indian monk named Vinitaruci (Vietnamese: Tì-ni-đa-lưu-chi) travelled to Vietnam after completing his studies with Sengcan, the third patriarch of Chinese Zen. This, then, would be the first appearance of Vietnamese Zen, or Thien (thiền) Buddhism. The sect that Vinitaruci and his lone Vietnamese disciple founded would become known as the oldest branch of Thien. After a period of obscurity, the Vinitaruci School became one of the most influential Buddhist groups in Vietnam by the 10th century, particularly so under the patriarch Vạn-Hạnh (died 1018). Other early Vietnamese Zen schools included the Vo Ngon Thong (Vô Ngôn Thông), which was associated with the teaching of Mazu, and the Thao Duong (Thảo Đường), which incorporated nianfo chanting techniques; both were founded by Chinese monks. A new school was founded by one of Vietnam’s religious kings; this was the Truc Lam (Trúc Lâm) school, which evinced a deep influence from Confucian and Taoist philosophy. Nevertheless, Truc Lam’s prestige waned over the following centuries as Confucianism became dominant in the royal court. In the 17th century, a group of Chinese monks led by Nguyen Thieu (Nguyên Thiều) established a vigorous new school, the Lam Te (Lâm Tế), which is the Vietnamese pronunciation of Linji. A more domesticated offshoot of Lam Te, the Lieu Quan (Liễu Quán) school, was founded in the 18th century and has since been the predominant branch of Vietnamese Zen.

The most famous practitioner of synchronized Thiền Buddhism in the West is Thích Nhất Hạnh who has authored dozens of books and founded Dharma center Plum Village in France together with his colleague -Bhikkhuni and Zen Master- Chan Khong.

Zen in Korea (Seon)

Seon was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late Silla period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks of predominantly Hwaeom (華嚴) and Consciousness-only (唯識) background began to travel to China to learn the newly developing tradition.
During his lifetime, Mazu had begun to attract students from Korea; by tradition, the first Korean to study Seon was named Peomnang (法朗). Mazu’s successors had numerous Korean students, some of whom returned to Korea and established the nine mountain (九山) schools. This was the beginning of Chan in Korea which is called Seon.

Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from the Goryeo monk Jinul (知訥) (1158–1210), who established a reform movement and introduced koan practice to Korea. Jinul established the Songgwangsa (松廣寺) as a new center of pure practice.
It was during the time of Jinul the Jogye Order, a primarily Seon sect, became the predominant form of Korean Buddhism, a status it still holds.
which survives down to the present in basically the same status. Toward the end of the Goryeo and during the Joseon period the Jogye Order would first be combined with the scholarly 教 schools, and then be relegated to lesser influence in ruling clas circles by Confucian influenced polity, even as it retained strength outside the cities, among the rural populations and ascetic monks in mountain refuges.

Nevertheless, there would be a series of important Seon teachers during the next several centuries, such as Hyegeun (慧勤), Taego (太古), Gihwa (己和) and Hyujeong (休靜), who continued to develop the basic mold of Korean meditational Buddhism established by Jinul. Seon continues to be practiced in Korea today at a number of major monastic centers, as well as being taught at Dongguk University, which has a major of studies in this religion.
Taego Bou (1301–1382) studied in China with Linji teacher and returned to unite the Nine Mountain Schools. In modern Korea, by far the largest Buddhist denomination is the Jogye Order, which is essentially a Zen sect; the name Jogye is the Korean equivalent of Caoxi (曹溪), another name for Huineng.

Seon is known for its stress on meditation, monasticism, and asceticism. Many Korean monks have few personal possessions and sometimes cut off all relations with the outside world. Several are near mendicants traveling from temple to temple practicing meditation. The hermit-recluse life is prevalent among monks to whom meditation practice is considered of paramount importance.^[30]

Currently, Korean Buddhism is in a state of slow transition. While the reigning theory behind Korean Buddhism was based on Jinul‘s «sudden enlightenment, gradual cultivation,» the modern Korean Seon master, Seongcheol‘s revival of Hui Neng‘s «sudden enlightenment, sudden cultivation» has had a strong impact on Korean Buddhism. Although there is resistance to change within the ranks of the Jogye order, with the last three Supreme Patriarchs’ stance that is in accordance with Seongcheol, there has been a gradual change in the atmosphere of Korean Buddhism.

Also, the Kwan Um School of Zen, one of the largest Zen schools in the West, teaches a form of Seon Buddhism. Soeng Hyang Soen Sa Nim (b. 1948), birth name Barbara Trexler (later Barbara Rhodes), is Guiding Dharma Teacher of the international Kwan Um School of Zen and successor of the late Seung Sahn Soen Sa Nim.

Zen in the Western world

Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its profile in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners, other than the descendants of Asian immigrants, pursuing a serious interest in Zen reached a significant level.

Zen and Western culture

In Europe, the Expressionist and Dada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of koans and actual Zen. The early French surrealist René Daumal translated D.T. Suzuki as well as Sanskrit Buddhist texts.

Eugen Herrigel‘s book Zen in the Art of Archery (1953),^[31] describing his training in the Zen-influenced martial art of Kyūdō, inspired many of the Western world’s early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars are quick to criticize this book. (eg see Yamada Shoji)^[32]

The British-American philosopher Alan Watts took a close interest in Zen Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it during the 1950s. He understood it as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also as a historical example of a non-Western, non-Christian way of life that had fostered both the practical and fine arts.

The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group of American youths, primarily on the West Coast. Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was «Japhy Ryder», a thinly-veiled depiction of Gary Snyder. The story was based on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.^[33]

Thomas Merton (1915–1968) the Trappist monk and priest [10] was internationally recognized as having one of those rare Western minds that was entirely at home in Asian experience. Like his friend, the late D.T. Suzuki, Merton believed that there must be a little of Zen in all authentic creative and spiritual experience. The dialogue between Merton and Suzuki («Wisdom in Emptiness» in: Zen and the Birds of Appetite, 1968) explores the many congruencies of Christian mysticism and Zen. (Main publications: The Way of Chuang Tzu, 1965; Mystics and Zen Masters, 1967; Zen and the Birds of Appetite, 1968).

Reginald Horace Blyth (1898-1964) was an Englishman who went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during the II World War and started writing in prison. He was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume «Zen and Zen Classics», published in the 1960s. In it, he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include titles such as «God, Buddha, and Buddhahood» or «Zen Sin, and Death». He is an enthusiast of Zen, but not altogether uncritical of it. His writings can be characterized as unorthodox and quirky.

While Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, by
Robert M. Pirsig, was a 1974 bestseller, it in fact has little to do with Zen as a religious practice. Rather it deals with the notion of the metaphysics of «quality» from the point of view of the main character. Pirsig was attending the Minnesota Zen Center at the time of writing the book[11]. He has stated that, despite its title, the book «should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice.» Though it may not deal with orthodox Zen Buddhist practice, Pirsig’s book in fact deals with many of the more subtle facets of Zen living and Zen mentality without drawing attention to any religion or religious organization.

A number of contemporary authors have explored the relationship between Zen and a number of other disciplines, including parenting, teaching, and leadership. Leadership expert Timothy H. Warneka uses a number of Zen stories, such as «Understanding Harmony» to explain leadership strategies:

Once upon a time in ancient Japan, a young man was studying martial arts under a famous teacher. Every day the young man would practice in a courtyard along with the other students. One day, as the master watched, he could see that the other students were consistently interfering with the young man’s technique. Sensing the student’s frustration, the master approached the student and tapped him on the shoulder. “What is wrong?” inquired the teacher. “I cannot execute my technique and I do not understand why,” replied the student. “This is because you do not understand harmony. Please follow me,” said the master. Leaving the practice hall, the master and student walked a short distance into the woods until they came upon a stream. After standing silently beside the streambed for a few minutes, the master spoke. “Look at the water,” he instructed. “It does not slam into the rocks and stop out of frustration, but instead flows around them and continues down the stream. Become like the water and you will understand harmony.” Soon, the student learned to move and flow like the stream, and none of the other students could keep him from executing his techniques.^[34]

Western Zen lineages

Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take root in the West.

In North America, the Zen lineages derived from the Japanese Soto school are the most numerous. Among these are the lineages of the San Francisco Zen Center, established by Shunryu Suzuki and the White Plum Asanga, founded by Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi. Suzuki’s San Francisco Zen Center established the first Zen Monastery in America in 1967, called Tassajara in the mountains near Big Sur. Maezumi’s successors have created schools including Great Plains Zen Center, founded by Susan Myoyu Andersen, Roshi, the Mountains and Rivers Order, founded by John Daido Loori, the Zen Peacemaker Order, founded by Bernard Tetsugen Glassman and the Ordinary Mind school, founded by Charlotte Joko Beck. The Katagiri lineage, founded by Dainin Katagiri, has a significant presence in the Midwest. Note that both Taizan Maezumi and Dainin Katagiri served as priests at Zenshuji Soto Mission in the 1960s.

Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest from Japan who taught in France. The International Zen Association, which he founded, remains influential. The American Zen Association, headquartered at the New Orleans Zen Temple, is one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.

Soyu Matsuoka, served as superintendent and abbot of the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center. The Temple was headquarters to Zen Centers in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Everett, Washington. He established the Temple at Long Beach in 1971 where he resided until his passing in 1998.

The Sanbo Kyodan is a Japan-based reformist Zen group, founded in 1954 by Yasutani Hakuun, which has had a significant influence on Zen in the West. Sanbo Kyodan Zen is based primarily on the Soto tradition, but also incorporates Rinzai-style koan practice. Yasutani’s approach to Zen first became prominent in the English-speaking world through Philip Kapleau‘s book The Three Pillars of Zen (1965), which was one of the first books to introduce Western audiences to Zen as a practice rather than simply a philosophy. Among the Zen groups in North America, Hawaii, Europe, and New Zealand which derive from Sanbo Kyodan are those associated with Kapleau, Robert Aitken, and John Tarrant.

In the UK, Throssel Hole Abbey was founded as a sister monastery to Shasta Abbey in California by Master Reverend Jiyu Kennett Roshi and has a number of dispersed Priories and centres. Jiyu Kennett, an English woman, was ordained as a priest and Zen master in Shoji-ji, one of the two main Soto Zen temples in Japan (her book The Wild White Goose describes her experiences in Japan). The Order is called the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives. The lineage of Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi is represented by the White Plum Sangha UK, while Taisen Deshimaru Roshi’s lineage is known in the UK as IZAUK (Intl Zen Assoc. UK). The Zen Centre in London is connected to the Buddhist Society. The Western Chan Fellowship is an association of lay Chan practitioners based in the UK. They are registered as a charity in England and Wales, but also have contacts in Europe, principally in Norway, Poland, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland and the USA.

There are also a number of Rinzai Zen centers in the West. In North America, some of the more prominent include Rinzai-ji founded by Kyozan Joshu Sasaki, Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji established by Eido Shimano and Kyudo Nakagawi Roshi, Chozen-ji founded by Omori Sogen Roshi and Chobo-Ji founded by Genki Takabayshi. In Europe there is Egely Monastery established by a Dharma Heir of Eido Shimano, Denko Mortensen.

Not all the successful Zen teachers in the West have been from Japanese traditions. There have also been teachers of Chan, Seon, and Thien Buddhism. In addition, there are a number of Zen teachers who studied in Asian traditions that because of corruption or political issues decided to strike out on their own. One organization of this type is Open Mind Zen in Melbourne, Florida.

File:CTTBgate.jpg

The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua, who taught Zen, Chinese Pure Land, Tiantai, Vinaya, and Vajrayana Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s. He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas, a monastery and retreat center located on a 237 acre (959,000 m²) property near Ukiah, California. Another Chinese Zen teacher with a Western following is Sheng-yen, a master trained in both the Caodong and Linji schools (equivalent to the Japanese Soto and Rinzai, respectively). He first visited the United States in 1978 under the sponsorship of the Buddhist Association of the United States, and, in 1980, founded the Chan Meditation Center in Queens, New York.[12].

The most prominent Korean Zen teacher in the West was Seung Sahn. Seung Sahn founded the Providence Zen Center in Providence, Rhode Island; this was to become the headquarters of the Kwan Um School of Zen, a large international network of affiliated Zen centers.

Two notable Vietnamese Zen teachers have been influential in Western countries: Thich Thien-An and Thich Nhat Hanh. Thich Thien-An came to America in 1966 as a visiting professor at UCLA and taught traditional Thien meditation. Thich Nhat Hanh was a monk in Vietnam during the Vietnam War, during which he was a peace activist. In response to these activities, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1967 by Martin Luther King, Jr. In 1966, he left Vietnam in exile and now resides at Plum Village, a monastery in France. He has written more than one hundred books about Buddhism, which have made him one of the very few most prominent Buddhist authors among the general readership in the West. In his books and talks, Thich Nhat Hanh emphasizes mindfulness (sati) as the most important practice in daily life.

Pan-lineage organizations

Template:Globalise
In the United States, two pan-lineage organizations have formed in the last few years. The oldest is the American Zen Teachers Association which sponsors an annual conference. North American Soto teachers in North America, led by several of the heirs of Taizan Maezumi and Shunryu Suzuki, have also formed the Soto Zen Buddhist Association.

See also

List of Zen teachers Tathagatagarbha doctrine Timeline of Zen Buddhism in the United States Zen garden

Ensō The Book of Tea Tao Sheng Dialectical monism

Southern Chan Wuzhun Shifan Kensho Inka

Modern D. T. Suzuki Philip Kapleau Charlotte Joko Beck John Daido Loori Dennis Genpo Merzel

Eido Tai Shimano John Tarrant Robert Aitken Brad Warner Alan Watts Osho Rajneesh

Traditional Linji (Rinzai) Dōgen Hsu Yun

Notes

References

• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History, 1: India and China, Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, ISBN 0-941532-89-5.
• Hori, Victor Sogen, Zen Sand
• Miura, Isshū; Sasaki, Ruth Fuller (1993), The Zen Koan, New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, ISBN 0-15-699981-1
• Suzuki, D.T. (1949), Essays in Zen Buddhism, New York: Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-5118-3.
• An Introduction to Zen Buddhism by D.T. Suzuki
• Nagatomo, Shigenori (2006-06-28), «Japanese Zen Buddhist Philosophy», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Blackman, Sushila (1997). Graceful Exits: How Great Beings Die: Death Stories of Tibetan, Hindu & Zen Masters. Weatherhill, Inc.: USA, New York, New York. ISBN 0-8348-0391-7
• Brian Daizen Victoria: Zen at War, (War and Peace Library), Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2nd edition, (August 2006), ISBN 0742539261(10), ISBN 978-0742539266(13)

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• Yoon, B.-y. (1979). A study of an extended concept of human intrapsychic capacity as expressed in D. T. Suzuki’s Zen Buddhism: Dissertation Abstracts International.
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• Young-Eisendrath, P., & Muramoto, S. (2002). Awakening and insight: Zen Buddhism and psychotherapy. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge.

External links

• Zen Centers at the Open Directory Project
• Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library
• The International Research Institute for Zen Buddhism
• Joint Council for Rinzai and Obaku Zen
• Soto zen
• Shambhala Sun Zen Articles
• A Study on the Origin of Chan Buddhism
• Rinzai Zen, master Shodo Harada Roshi, Sogenji,Okayama
• Rochester Zen Center
• Means of Authorization: Establishing Hierarchy in Ch’an/Zen Buddhism in America
• Isthmus Zen Community of Madison, WI

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This is a background article on Zen. For psychological aspects see:

• Zen and psychotherapy

Zen (Japanese: 禅) from Dhyana (Sanskrit) via Chán (Chinese: 禅|禅) and Sŏn (Korean: 선|선) is a school of Mahāyāna Buddhism notable for its emphasis on mindful acceptance of the present moment, spontaneous action, and letting go of self-conscious, judgmental thinking^[1][2]

It emphasizes dharma practice and experiential wisdom—particularly as realized in the form of meditation known as zazen—in the attainment of awakening. As such, it de-emphasizes both theoretical knowledge and the study of religious texts in favor of direct individual experience of one’s own true nature.

A broader term is the Sanskrit word «dhyana», which exists also in other religions in India.

The emergence of Chán (Zen) as a distinct school of Buddhism was first documented in China in the 7th century CE. It is thought to have developed as an amalgam of various currents in Mahāyāna Buddhist thought—among them the Yogācāra and Madhyamaka philosophies and the Prajñāpāramitā literature—and of local traditions in China, particularly Taoism and Huáyán Buddhism. From China, Chán subsequently spread southwards to Vietnam and eastwards to Korea and Japan. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Zen also began to establish a notable presence in North America and Europe.

The Five Houses of Zen

Developing primarily in the Tang dynasty in China, Classic Zen is traditionally divided historically into the Five Houses of Zen or five «schools». These were not originally regarded as «schools,» or «sects,» but historically, they have come to be understood that way. In their early history, the schools were not institutionalized, they were without dogma, and the teachers which founded them were not idolized.

The Five Houses of Zen are^[3] :

• Kuei-Yang, named after masters Kuei-shan Ling-yu (771-854) and Yang-Shen Hui-chi (813-890)
• Lin-chi, from which the modern Rinzai, Obaku, and (now defunct) Fuke schools were formed, named after master Lin-chi I-hsuan (d. 866)
• Tsao-tung, from which the modern Soto school was formed, named after masters Tung-shan Liang-chieh (807-869) and Ts’ao-shan Pen-chi (840-901)
• Yun-men, named after master Yun-men Wen-yen (d. 949)
• Fa-yen, named after master Fa-yen Wen-i (885-958)

Most Zen lineages throughout Asia and the rest of the world originally grew from or were heavily influenced by the original five houses of Zen.

Zen teachings and practices

Basis

File:Huineng Tearing Sutras.jpg

Zen asserts, as do other schools in Mahayana Buddhism, that all sentient beings have Buddha-nature, the universal nature of inherent wisdom (Sanskrit prajna) and virtue, and emphasizes that Buddha-nature is nothing other than the nature of mind itself. The aim of Zen practice is to discover this Buddha-nature within each person, through meditation and mindfulness of daily experiences. Zen practitioners believe that this provides new perspectives and insights on existence, which ultimately lead to enlightenment.

In distinction to many other Buddhist sects, Zen dis-emphasizes reliance on religious texts and verbal discourse on metaphysical questions. Zen holds that these things lead the practitioner to seek external answers, rather than searching within their own minds for the direct intuitive apperception of Buddha-nature. This search within goes under various terms such as “introspection,” “a backward step,” “turning-about,” or “turning the eye inward.”

In this sense, Zen, as a means to deepen the practice and in contrast to many other religions, could be seen as fiercely anti-philosophical, iconoclastic, anti-prescriptive and anti-theoretical. The importance of Zen’s non-reliance on written words is often misunderstood as being against the use of words. However, Zen is deeply rooted in both the scriptural teachings of the Buddha Siddhārtha Gautama and in Mahāyāna Buddhist thought and philosophy. What Zen emphasizes is that the awakening taught by the Buddha came through his meditation practice, not from any words that he read or discovered, and so it is primarily through meditation that others too may awaken to the same insights as the Buddha.

The teachings on the technique and practice of turning the eye inward are found in many suttas and sutras of Buddhist canons, but in its beginnings in China, Zen primarily referred to the Mahayana Sutras and especially to the Lankavatara Sutra. Ironically, since Bodhidharma taught the turning-about techniques of dhyana with reference to the Lankavatara Sutra, the Zen school was initially identified with that sutra. It was in part through reaction to such limiting identification with one text that Chinese Zen cultivated its famous non-reliance on written words and independence of any one scripture. However, a review of the teachings of the early Zen masters clearly reveals that they were all well versed in various scriptures. For example, in The Platform Sutra of the Sixth ancestor and founder Huineng, this famously «illiterate» Zen master cites and explains the Diamond Sutra, the Lotus Sutra, the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Shurangama Sutra, and the Lankavatara Sutra.

When Buddhism came to China the doctrine of the three core practices or trainings, the training in virtue and discipline in the precepts (Sanskrit Śīla), the training in mind through meditation (dhyana or jhana) sometimes called concentration (samadhi), and the training in discernment and wisdom (prajna), was already established in the Pali canon.(http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.088.than.html#trainings) In this context, as Buddhism became adapted to Chinese culture, three types of teachers with expertise in each training practice developed. Vinaya masters were versed in all the rules of discipline for monks and nuns. Dhyana masters were versed in the practice of meditation. And Dharma, i.e., teaching or sutra, masters were versed in the Buddhist texts. Monastaries and practice centers were created that tended to focus on either the vinaya and training of monks or the teachings focused on one scripture or a small group of texts. Dhyana or Chan masters tended to practice in solitary hermitages or to be associated with the Vinaya training monasteries or sutra teaching centers.

After Bodhidharma’s arrival in the late fifth century, the subsequent dhyana-chan masters who were associated with his teaching line consolidated around the practice of meditation and the feeling that mere observance of the rules of discipline or the intellectual teachings of the scriptures did not emphasize enough the actual practice and personal experience of the Buddha’s meditation that led to the Buddha’s awakening. Awakening like the Buddha, and not merely following rules or memorizing texts became the watchword of the dhyana-chan practitioners. Within 200 years after Bodhidharma at the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, by the time of the fifth generation Chan ancestor and founder Daman Hongren (601-674), the Zen of Bodhidharma’s successors had become well established as a separate school of Buddhism and the true Zen school.^[4]

The core of Zen practice is seated meditation, widely known by its Japanese name Zazen, and recalls both the posture in which the Buddha is said to have achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi tree at Bodh Gaya, and the elements of mindfulness and concentration which are part of the Eightfold Path as taught by the Buddha. All of the Buddha’s fundamental teachings—among them the Eightfold Path, the Four Noble Truths, the idea of dependent origination, the five precepts, the five aggregates, and the three marks of existence—also make up important elements of the perspective that Zen takes for its practice. While Buddhists generally revere certain places as a Bodhimandala (circle or place of enlightenment) in Zen wherever one sits in true meditation is said to be a Bodhimandala.

Additionally, as a development of Mahāyāna Buddhism, Zen draws many of its basic driving concepts, particularly the bodhisattva ideal, from that school. Uniquely Mahāyāna figures such as Guānyīn, Mañjuśrī, Samantabhadra, and Amitābha are venerated alongside the historical Buddha. Despite Zen’s emphasis on transmission independent of scriptures, it has drawn heavily on the Mahāyāna sūtras, particularly the Heart of Perfect Wisdom Sūtra, Hredaya Pranyaparamita the Sūtra of the Perfection of Wisdom of the Diamond that Cuts through Illusion, The Vajrachedika Pranyaparamita the Lankavatara Sūtra, and the «Samantamukha Parivarta» section of the Lotus Sūtra.

Zen has also itself paradoxically produced a rich corpus of written literature which has become a part of its practice and teaching. Among the earliest and most widely studied of the specifically Zen texts, dating back to at least the 9th century CE, is the Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch, sometimes attributed to Huìnéng. Others include the various collections of kōans and the Shōbōgenzō of Dōgen Zenji.

Zen training emphasizes daily practice, along with intensive periods of meditation. Practicing with others is an integral part of Zen practice. D.T. Suzuki wrote that aspects of this life are: a life of humility; a life of labor; a life of service; a life of prayer and gratitude; and a life of meditation.^[5] The Chinese Chan master Baizhang (720–814 CE) left behind a famous saying which had been the guiding principle of his life, «A day without work is a day without food.»^[6]

Zen meditation

Zazen

Main article: Zazen

File:Kodo Sawaki.jpg

As the name Zen implies, Zen sitting meditation is the core of Zen practice and is called zazen in Japanese (坐禅; Chinese tso-chan [Wade-Giles] or zuòchán [Pinyin]). During zazen, practitioners usually assume a sitting position such as the lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza postures. To regulate the mind, awareness is directed towards counting or watching the breath or put in the energy center below the navel (Chinese dan tian, Japanese tanden or hara). [6] Often, a square or round cushion (zafu, 座蒲) placed on a padded mat (zabuton, 座布団) is used to sit on; in some cases, a chair may be used. In Japanese Rinzai Zen tradition practitioners typically sit facing the center of the room; while Japanese Soto practitioners traditionally sit facing a wall.

In Soto Zen, shikantaza meditation («just-sitting», 只管打坐) that is, a meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without interference. Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of this practice can be found throughout Dōgen’s Shōbōgenzō, as for example in the «Principles of Zazen»^[7] and the «Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen».^[8] Rinzai Zen, instead, emphasizes attention to the breath and koan practice (q.v.).

The amount of time spent daily in zazen by practitioners varies. Dōgen recommends that five minutes or more daily is beneficial for householders. The key is daily regularity, as Zen teaches that the ego will naturally resist, and the discipline of regularity is essential. Practicing Zen monks may perform four to six periods of zazen during a normal day, with each period lasting 30 to 40 minutes. Normally, a monastery will hold a monthly retreat period (sesshin), lasting between one and seven days. During this time, zazen is practiced more intensively: monks may spend four to eight hours in meditation each day, sometimes supplemented by further rounds of zazen late at night.

Meditation as a practice can be applied to any posture. Walking meditation is called kinhin. Successive periods of zazen are usually interwoven with brief periods of walking meditation to relieve the legs.

Sesshin

Main article: Sesshin

Zazen practice in monasteries is known as sesshin. One distinctive aspect of Zen meditation in groups is the use of the keisaku, a flat wooden stick or slat used to keep meditators focused and awake.

The Zen teacher

Main article: Zen teacher

Because the Zen tradition emphasizes direct communication over scriptural study, the Zen teacher has traditionally played a central role. Generally speaking, a Zen teacher is a person ordained in any tradition of Zen to teach the Dharma, guide students of meditation, and perform rituals.
An important concept for all Zen sects is the notion of dharma transmission: the claim of a line of authority that goes back to Śākyamuni Buddha via the teachings of each successive master to each successive student. This concept relates to the ideas expressed in a description of Zen attributed to Bodhidharma:

A special transmission outside the scriptures; (教外別傳)

No dependence upon words and letters; (不立文字)

Direct pointing to the human mind; (直指人心)

Seeing into one’s own nature and attaining Buddhahood. (見性成佛)^[9]

The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki (1949:168) contends was invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige.

John McRae’s study “Seeing Through Zen” explores this assertion of lineage as a distinctive and central aspect of Zen Buddhism. He writes of this “genealogical” approach so central to Zen’s self-understanding, that while not without precedent, has unique features. It is “relational (involving interaction between individuals rather than being based solely on individual effort), generational (in that it is organized according to parent-child, or rather teacher-student, generations) and reiterative (i.e., intended for emulation and repetition in the lives of present and future teachers and students.”

McRae offers a detailed criticism of lineage, but he also notes it is central to Zen. So much so that it is hard to envision any claim to Zen that discards claims of lineage. Therefore, for example, in Japanese Soto, lineage charts become a central part of the Sanmatsu, the documents of Dharma transmission. And it is common for daily chanting in Zen temples and monasteries to include the lineage of the school.

In Japan during the Tokugawa period (1600–1868), some came to question the lineage system and its legitimacy. The Zen master Dokuan Genko (1630–1698), for example, openly questioned the necessity of written acknowledgment from a teacher, which he dismissed as «paper Zen.» Quite a number of teachers in Japan during the Tokugawa period did not adhere to the lineage system; these were termed mushi dokugo (無師獨悟, «independently enlightened without a teacher») or jigo jisho (自悟自証, «self-enlightened and self-certified»). Modern Zen Buddhists also consider questions about the dynamics of the lineage system, inspired in part by academic research into the history of Zen.

Honorific titles associated with teachers typically include, in Chinese, Fashi (法師) or Chanshi (禪師); in Korean, Sunim (an honorofic for a monk or nun) and Seon Sa (선사); in Japanese, Osho (和尚), Roshi (老師), or Sensei (先生); and in Vietnamese, Thầy. Note that many of these titles are not specific to Zen but are used generally for Buddhist priests; some, such as sensei are not even specific to Buddhism.

The English term Zen master is often used to refer to important teachers, especially ancient and medieval ones. However, there is no specific criterion by which one may be called a Zen master. The term is less common in reference to modern teachers. In the Open Mind Zen School, English terms have been substituted for the Japanese ones to avoid confusion of this issue. «Assistant Zen Teacher» is a person authorized to begin to teach, but still under the supervision of his teacher. «Zen Teacher» applies to one authorized to teach without further direction, and «Zen Master» refers to one who is a Zen Teacher and has founded his or her own teaching center.

Koan practice

Main article: Koan

File:Wu (negative).svg

Zen Buddhists may practice koan inquiry during sitting meditation (zazen), walking meditation, and throughout all the activities of daily life. A koan (literally «public case») is a story or dialogue, generally related to Zen or other Buddhist history; the most typical form is an anecdote involving early Chinese Zen masters. Koan practice is particularly emphasized by the Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.^[10]

These anecdotes involving famous Zen teachers are a practical demonstration of their wisdom, and can be used to test a student’s progress in Zen practice. Koans often appear to be paradoxical or linguistically meaningless dialogues or questions. But to Zen Buddhists the koan is «the place and the time and the event where truth reveals itself»^[11] unobstructed by the oppositions and differientiations of language. Answering a koan requires a student to let go of conceptual thinking and of the logical way we order the world, so that like creativity in art, the appropriate insight and response arises naturally and spontaneously in the mind.

Koans and their study developed in China within the context of the open questions and answers of teaching sessions conducted by the Chinese Zen masters. Today, the Zen student’s mastery of a given koan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan (独参), daisan (代参), or sanzen (参禅)). Zen teachers advise that the problem posed by a koan is to be taken quite seriously, and to be approached as literally a matter of life and death. While there is no unique answer to a koan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the koan and of Zen through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right direction. There are also various commentaries on koans, written by experienced teachers, that can serve as a guide. These commentaries are also of great value to modern scholarship on the subject.

Chanting and liturgy

A practice in many Zen monasteries and centers is a daily liturgy service. Practitioners chant major sutras such as the Heart Sutra, chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra (often called the «Avalokiteshvara Sutra»), the Song of the Jewel Mirror Awareness, the Great Compassionate Heart Dharani (Daihishin Dharani),^[12] and other minor mantras.

The Butsudan is the altar in a monastery where offerings are made to the images of the Buddha or Bodhisattvas. The same term is also used in Japanese homes for the altar where one prays to and communicates with deceased family members. As such, reciting liturgy in Zen can be seen as a means to connect with the Bodhisattvas of the past. Liturgy is often used during funerals, memorials, and other special events as means to invoke the aid of supernatural powers.

Chanting usually centers on major Bodhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara (see also Guan Yin) and Manjusri. According to Mahayana Buddhism, Bodhisattvas are celestial beings which have taken extraordinary vows to liberate all beings from Samsara (the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth), while remaining in Samsara themselves. Since the Zen practitioner’s aim is to walk the Bodhisattva path, chanting can be used as a means to connect with these beings and realize this ideal within oneself. By repeatedly chanting the Avalokiteshvara sutra (観世音菩薩普門品 Kanzeon Bosatsu Fumonbon^?), for example, one instills the Bodhisattva’s ideals into ones mind. The ultimate goal is given in the end of the sutra, which states,
«In the morning, be one with Avalokiteshvara,
In the evening, be one with Avalokiteshvara,»^[13],
Through the realization of the Emptiness of oneself, and the Mahayanist ideal of Buddha-nature in all things, one understands that there is no difference between the cosmic bodhisattva and oneself. The wisdom and compassion of the Boddhisattva one is chanting to is seen to equal the inner wisdom and compassion of the practitioner. Thus, the duality between subject and object, practitioner and Bodhisattva, chanter and sutra is ended.

One modern day Roshi justifies the use of chanting sutras by referring to Zen master Dōgen.^[14], Dōgen is known to have refuted the statement «Painted rice cakes will not satisfy hunger». This means that sutras, which are just symbols like painted rice cakes, cannot truly satisfy one’s spiritual hunger. Dōgen, however, saw that there is no separation between metaphor and reality. «There is no difference between paintings, rice cakes, or any thing at all».^[15] The symbol and the symbolized were inherently the same, and thus only the sutras could truly satisfy one’s spiritual needs.

To understand this non-dual relationship experientially, one is told to practice liturgy intimately. ^[16] In distinguishing between ceremony and liturgy, Dōgen states, «In ceremony there are forms and there are sounds, there is understanding and there is believing. In liturgy there is only intimacy.» The practitioner is instructed to listen to and speak liturgy not just with one sense, but with one’s «whole body-and-mind». By listening with one’s entire being, one eliminates the space between the self and the liturgy. Thus, Dōgen’s instructions are to «listen with the eye and see with the ear». By focusing all of one’s being on one specific practice, duality is transcended. Dōgen says, «Let go of the eye, and the whole body-and-mind are nothing but the eye; let go of the ear, and the whole universe is nothing but the ear.» Chanting intimately thus allows one to experience a non-dual reality. The liturgy used is a tool to allow the practitioner to transcend the old conceptions of self and other. In this way, intimate liturgy practice allows one to realize Sunyata, or emptiness, which is at the heart of Buddhist teachings.

Other techniques

There are other techniques common in the Zen tradition which seem unconventional and whose purpose is said to be to shock a student in order to help him or her let go of habitual activities of the mind. Some of these are common today, while others are found mostly in anecdotes. These include the loud belly shout known as katsu. It is common in many Zen traditions today for Zen teachers to have a stick with them during formal ceremonies which is a symbol of authority and which can be also used to strike on the table during a talk. The now defunct Fuke Zen sect was also well-known for practicing suizen, meditation with the shakuhachi, which some Zen Buddhists today also practice.

Mythology

Within Zen, and thus from an emic perspective, the origins of Zen Buddhism are ascribed to what is called the Flower Sermon, in which Śākyamuni Buddha is supposed to have passed on special insight to the disciple Mahākāśyapa. The sermon itself was a wordless one in which Śākyamuni merely held up a flower before the assembled disciples, among whom there was no reaction apart from Mahākāśyapa, who smiled. The smile is said to have signified Mahākāśyapa’s understanding, and Śākyamuni acknowledged this by saying:

I possess the true Dharma eye, the marvelous mind of Nirvana, the true form of the formless, the subtle dharma gate that does not rest on words or letters but is a special transmission outside of the scriptures. This I entrust to Mahākāśyapa.^[17]

Thus, a way within Buddhism developed which concentrated on direct experience rather than on rational creeds or revealed scriptures. Zen is a method of meditative religion which seeks to enlighten people in the manner that the Mahākāśyapa experienced.^[18]

In the Song of Enlightenment (證道歌 Zhèngdào gē) of Yǒngjiā Xuánjué (665-713)^[19]—one of the chief disciples of Huìnéng, the 6th patriarch of Chan Buddhism—it is written that Bodhidharma was the 28th patriarch in a line of descent from Mahākāśyapa, a disciple of Śākyamuni Buddha, and the first patriarch of Chan Buddhism:

Mahākāśyapa was the first, leading the line of transmission;

Twenty-eight Fathers followed him in the West;

The Lamp was then brought over the sea to this country;

And Bodhidharma became the First Father here:

His mantle, as we all know, passed over six Fathers,

And by them many minds came to see the Light.^[20]

The idea of a line of descent from Śākyamuni Buddha is a distinctive institution of Zen which Suzuki (1949:168) contends was invented by hagiographers to grant Zen legitimacy and prestige. The earliest source for the legend of the «Flower sermon» is from 11th century China.^[21].

Early history

Chán developed as an amalgam of Mahāyāna Buddhism and Taoism.^[22] Dumoulin (2005) argues that Chán also has roots in yogic practices, specifically kammaṭṭhāna, the consideration of objects, and kasiṇa, total fixation of the mind.

The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by interaction and syncretism with Taoic faiths, Taoism in particular.^[23] Buddhism’s scriptures were translated into Chinese with Taoist vocabulary, because it was originally seen as a kind of foreign Taoism.^[24] In the Tang period, Taoism incorporated such Buddhist elements as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture into tripartite organisation. During the same time, Chán Buddhism grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism.^[25]

The establishment of Chán is traditionally credited to the Indian prince turned monk Bodhidharma (formerly dated ca 500 CE, but now ca early fifth century^[26]), who is recorded as having come to China to teach a «special transmission outside scriptures» which «did not stand upon words». Bodhidharma settled in the kingdom of Wei where he took among his disciples Daoyu and Huike. Early on in China Bodhidharma’s teaching was referred to as the «One Vehicle sect of India.»^[27] The One Vehicle (Sanskrit Ekayāna), also known as the Supreme Vehicle or the Buddha Vehicle, was taught in the Lankavatara Sutra which was closely associated with Bodhidharma. However the label «One Vehicle sect» did not become widely used, and Bodhidharma’s teaching became known as the Chan sect for its primary focus on chan training and practice. Shortly before his death, Bodhidharma appointed Huike to succeed him, making Huike the first Chinese born patriarch and the second patriarch of Chán in China. Bodhidharma is said to have passed three items to Huike as a sign of transmission of the Dharma: a robe, a bowl, and a copy of the Lankavatara Sutra. The transmission then passed to the second patriarch (Huike), the third (Sengcan), the fourth patriarch (Dao Xin) and the fifth patriarch (Hongren).

The sixth and last patriarch, Huineng (638–713), was one of the giants of Chán history, and all surviving schools regard him as their ancestor. However, the dramatic story of Huineng’s life tells that there was a controversy over his claim to the title of patriarch. After being chosen by Hongren, the fifth patriarch, Huineng had to flee by night to Nanhua Temple in the south to avoid the wrath of Hongren’s jealous senior disciples. Later, in the middle of the 8th century, monks claiming to be among the successors to Huineng, calling themselves the Southern school, cast themselves in opposition to those claiming to succeed Hongren’s then publicly recognized student Shenxiu (神秀). It is commonly held that at this point—the debates between these rival factions—that Chán enters the realm of fully documented history. The Southern school eventually became predominant and their rivals died out. Modern scholarship, however, has questioned this narrative.

The following are the six Patriarchs of Chán in China as listed in traditional sources:

1. Bodhidharma (बोधिधर्म) about 440 — about 528
2. Huike (慧可) 487 — 593
3. Sengcan (僧燦) ? — 606
4. Daoxin (道信) 580 — 651
5. Hongren (弘忍) 601 — 674
6. Huineng (慧能) 638 — 713

Zen in China (Chán)

In the following centuries, Chán grew to become the largest sect in Chinese Buddhism and, despite its «transmission beyond the scriptures», produced the largest body of literature in Chinese history of any sect or tradition. The teachers claiming Huineng’s posterity began to branch off into numerous different schools, each with their own special emphasis, but all of which kept the same basic focus on meditational practice, personal instruction and personal experience.

During the late Tang and the Song periods, the tradition continued, as a wide number of eminent teachers, such as Mazu (Wade-Giles: Ma-tsu; Japanese: Baso), Shitou (Shih-t’ou; Japanese: Sekito), Baizhang (Pai-chang; Japanese: Hyakujo), Huangbo (Huang-po; Jap.: Obaku), Linji (Lin-chi; Jap.: Rinzai), and Yunmen (Jap.: Ummon) developed specialized teaching methods, which would variously become characteristic of the five houses (五家) of Chán. The traditional five houses were Caodong (曹洞宗), Linji (臨濟宗), Guiyang (潙仰宗), Fayan (法眼宗), and Yunmen (雲門宗). This list does not include earlier schools such as the Hongzhou (洪州宗) of Mazu.

Over the course of Song Dynasty (960–1279), the Guiyang, Fayan, and Yunmen schools were gradually absorbed into the Linji. During the same period, the various developments of Chán teaching methods crystallized into the gong-an (koan) practice which is unique to this school of Buddhism. According to Miura and Sasaki, «it was during the lifetime of Yüan-wu‘s successor, Ta-hui Tsung-kao 大慧宗杲 (Daie Sōkō, 1089-1163) that Koan Zen entered its determinative stage.»^[28] Gong-an practice was prevalent in the Linji school, to which Yuanwu and Ta-hui (pinyin: Dahui) belonged, but it was also employed on a more limited basis by the Caodong school. The teaching styles and words of the classical masters were collected in such important texts as the Blue Cliff Record (1125) of Yuanwu, The Gateless Gate (1228) of Wumen, both of the Linji lineage, and the Book of Equanimity (1223) of Wansong, of the Caodong lineage. These texts record classic gong-an cases, together with verse and prose commentaries, which would be studied by later generations of students down to the present.

Chán continued to be influential as a religious force in China, and thrived in the post-Song period; with a vast body of texts being produced up and through the modern period. While traditionally distinct, Chán was taught alongside Pure Land Buddhism in many Chinese Buddhist monasteries. In time much of the distinction between them was lost, and many masters taught both Chán and Pure Land. Chán Buddhism enjoyed something of a revival in the Ming Dynasty with teachers such as Hanshan Deqing (憨山德清), who wrote and taught extensively on both Chán and Pure Land Buddhism; Miyun Yuanwu (密雲圓悟), who came to be seen posthumously as the first patriarch of the Obaku Zen school; as well as Yunqi Zhuhong (雲棲株宏) and Ouyi Zhixu (藕溢智旭).

After further centuries of decline, Chán was revived again in the early 20th century by Hsu Yun, a well-known figure of 20th century Chinese Buddhism. Many Chán teachers today trace their lineage back to Hsu Yun, including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chán in the West where it has grown steadily through the 20th and 21st century.

It was severely repressed in China during the recent modern era with the appearance of the People’s Republic, but has more recently been re-asserting itself on the mainland, and has a significant following in Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.
^[29]

Zen in Japan

File:Japanese buddhist monk by Arashiyama cut.jpg

The schools of Zen that currently exist in Japan are the Sōtō (曹洞), Rinzai (臨済), and Obaku (黃檗). Of these, Sōtō is the largest and Obaku the smallest. Rinzai is itself divided into several subschools based on temple affiliation, including Myoshin-ji, Nanzen-ji, Tenryū-ji, Daitoku-ji, and Tofuku-ji.

Although the Japanese had known Zen-like practices for centuries (Taoism and Shinto), it was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to establish a Linji lineage, which is known in Japan as Rinzai. Decades later, Nanpo Jomyo (南浦紹明) also studied Linji teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan lineage, the most influential branch of Rinzai. In 1215, Dōgen, a younger contemporary of Eisai’s, journeyed to China himself, where he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing. After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the Japanese branch of Caodong. The Obaku lineage was introduced in the 17th century by Ingen, a Chinese monk. Ingen had been a member of the Linji school, the Chinese equivalent of Rinzai, which had developed separately from the Japanese branch for hundreds of years. Thus, when Ingen journeyed to Japan following the fall of the Ming Dynasty to the Manchus, his teachings were seen as a separate school. The Obaku school was named for Mount Obaku (Chinese: Huangboshan), which had been Ingen’s home in China.

Some contemporary Japanese Zen teachers, such as Daiun Harada and Shunryu Suzuki, have criticized Japanese Zen as being a formalized system of empty rituals in which very few Zen practitioners ever actually attain realization. They assert that almost all Japanese temples have become family businesses handed down from father to son, and the Zen priest’s function has largely been reduced to officiating at funerals^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]}.

The Japanese Zen establishment—including the Sōtō sect, the major branches of Rinzai, and several renowned teachers— has been criticized for its involvement in Japanese militarism and nationalism during World War II and the preceding period. A notable work on this subject was Zen at War (1998) by Brian Victoria, an American-born Sōtō priest. At the same time, however, one must be aware that this involvement was by no means limited to the Zen school: all orthodox Japanese schools of Buddhism supported the militarist state. What may be most striking, though, as Victoria has argued, is that many Zen masters known for their post-war internationalism and promotion of «world peace» were open nationalists in the inter-war years [7]. And some of them, like Haku’un Yasutani, the founder of the Sanbo Kyodan School, even voiced their anti-semitic and nationalistic opinions after World War II. [8], [9]

This openness has allowed non-Buddhists to practice Zen, especially outside of Asia, and even for the curious phenomenon of an emerging Christian Zen lineage, as well as one or two lines that call themselves «nonsectarian.» With no official governing body, it’s perhaps impossible to declare any authentic lineage «heretical.» Some schools emphasize lineage and trace their line of teachers back to China, Japan, Korea, or Vietnam; other schools do not^{[How to reference and link to summary or text]}.

Zen in Vietnam (Thiền)

Thiền Buddhism (禪宗 Thiền Tông) is the Vietnamese name for the school of Zen Buddhism. Thien is ultimately derived from Chan Zong 禪宗 (simplified, 禅宗), itself a derivative of the Sanskrit «Dhyāna«.

According to traditional accounts of Vietnam, in 580, an Indian monk named Vinitaruci (Vietnamese: Tì-ni-đa-lưu-chi) travelled to Vietnam after completing his studies with Sengcan, the third patriarch of Chinese Zen. This, then, would be the first appearance of Vietnamese Zen, or Thien (thiền) Buddhism. The sect that Vinitaruci and his lone Vietnamese disciple founded would become known as the oldest branch of Thien. After a period of obscurity, the Vinitaruci School became one of the most influential Buddhist groups in Vietnam by the 10th century, particularly so under the patriarch Vạn-Hạnh (died 1018). Other early Vietnamese Zen schools included the Vo Ngon Thong (Vô Ngôn Thông), which was associated with the teaching of Mazu, and the Thao Duong (Thảo Đường), which incorporated nianfo chanting techniques; both were founded by Chinese monks. A new school was founded by one of Vietnam’s religious kings; this was the Truc Lam (Trúc Lâm) school, which evinced a deep influence from Confucian and Taoist philosophy. Nevertheless, Truc Lam’s prestige waned over the following centuries as Confucianism became dominant in the royal court. In the 17th century, a group of Chinese monks led by Nguyen Thieu (Nguyên Thiều) established a vigorous new school, the Lam Te (Lâm Tế), which is the Vietnamese pronunciation of Linji. A more domesticated offshoot of Lam Te, the Lieu Quan (Liễu Quán) school, was founded in the 18th century and has since been the predominant branch of Vietnamese Zen.

The most famous practitioner of synchronized Thiền Buddhism in the West is Thích Nhất Hạnh who has authored dozens of books and founded Dharma center Plum Village in France together with his colleague -Bhikkhuni and Zen Master- Chan Khong.

Zen in Korea (Seon)

Seon was gradually transmitted into Korea during the late Silla period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks of predominantly Hwaeom (華嚴) and Consciousness-only (唯識) background began to travel to China to learn the newly developing tradition.
During his lifetime, Mazu had begun to attract students from Korea; by tradition, the first Korean to study Seon was named Peomnang (法朗). Mazu’s successors had numerous Korean students, some of whom returned to Korea and established the nine mountain (九山) schools. This was the beginning of Chan in Korea which is called Seon.

Seon received its most significant impetus and consolidation from the Goryeo monk Jinul (知訥) (1158–1210), who established a reform movement and introduced koan practice to Korea. Jinul established the Songgwangsa (松廣寺) as a new center of pure practice.
It was during the time of Jinul the Jogye Order, a primarily Seon sect, became the predominant form of Korean Buddhism, a status it still holds.
which survives down to the present in basically the same status. Toward the end of the Goryeo and during the Joseon period the Jogye Order would first be combined with the scholarly 教 schools, and then be relegated to lesser influence in ruling clas circles by Confucian influenced polity, even as it retained strength outside the cities, among the rural populations and ascetic monks in mountain refuges.

Nevertheless, there would be a series of important Seon teachers during the next several centuries, such as Hyegeun (慧勤), Taego (太古), Gihwa (己和) and Hyujeong (休靜), who continued to develop the basic mold of Korean meditational Buddhism established by Jinul. Seon continues to be practiced in Korea today at a number of major monastic centers, as well as being taught at Dongguk University, which has a major of studies in this religion.
Taego Bou (1301–1382) studied in China with Linji teacher and returned to unite the Nine Mountain Schools. In modern Korea, by far the largest Buddhist denomination is the Jogye Order, which is essentially a Zen sect; the name Jogye is the Korean equivalent of Caoxi (曹溪), another name for Huineng.

Seon is known for its stress on meditation, monasticism, and asceticism. Many Korean monks have few personal possessions and sometimes cut off all relations with the outside world. Several are near mendicants traveling from temple to temple practicing meditation. The hermit-recluse life is prevalent among monks to whom meditation practice is considered of paramount importance.^[30]

Currently, Korean Buddhism is in a state of slow transition. While the reigning theory behind Korean Buddhism was based on Jinul‘s «sudden enlightenment, gradual cultivation,» the modern Korean Seon master, Seongcheol‘s revival of Hui Neng‘s «sudden enlightenment, sudden cultivation» has had a strong impact on Korean Buddhism. Although there is resistance to change within the ranks of the Jogye order, with the last three Supreme Patriarchs’ stance that is in accordance with Seongcheol, there has been a gradual change in the atmosphere of Korean Buddhism.

Also, the Kwan Um School of Zen, one of the largest Zen schools in the West, teaches a form of Seon Buddhism. Soeng Hyang Soen Sa Nim (b. 1948), birth name Barbara Trexler (later Barbara Rhodes), is Guiding Dharma Teacher of the international Kwan Um School of Zen and successor of the late Seung Sahn Soen Sa Nim.

Zen in the Western world

Although it is difficult to trace when the West first became aware of Zen as a distinct form of Buddhism, the visit of Soyen Shaku, a Japanese Zen monk, to Chicago during the World Parliament of Religions in 1893 is often pointed to as an event that enhanced its profile in the Western world. It was during the late 1950s and the early 1960s that the number of Westerners, other than the descendants of Asian immigrants, pursuing a serious interest in Zen reached a significant level.

Zen and Western culture

In Europe, the Expressionist and Dada movements in art tend to have much in common thematically with the study of koans and actual Zen. The early French surrealist René Daumal translated D.T. Suzuki as well as Sanskrit Buddhist texts.

Eugen Herrigel‘s book Zen in the Art of Archery (1953),^[31] describing his training in the Zen-influenced martial art of Kyūdō, inspired many of the Western world’s early Zen practitioners. However, many scholars are quick to criticize this book. (eg see Yamada Shoji)^[32]

The British-American philosopher Alan Watts took a close interest in Zen Buddhism and wrote and lectured extensively on it during the 1950s. He understood it as a vehicle for a mystical transformation of consciousness, and also as a historical example of a non-Western, non-Christian way of life that had fostered both the practical and fine arts.

The Dharma Bums, a novel written by Jack Kerouac and published in 1959, gave its readers a look at how a fascination with Buddhism and Zen was being absorbed into the bohemian lifestyles of a small group of American youths, primarily on the West Coast. Beside the narrator, the main character in this novel was «Japhy Ryder», a thinly-veiled depiction of Gary Snyder. The story was based on actual events taking place while Snyder prepared, in California, for the formal Zen studies that he would pursue in Japanese monasteries between 1956 and 1968.^[33]

Thomas Merton (1915–1968) the Trappist monk and priest [10] was internationally recognized as having one of those rare Western minds that was entirely at home in Asian experience. Like his friend, the late D.T. Suzuki, Merton believed that there must be a little of Zen in all authentic creative and spiritual experience. The dialogue between Merton and Suzuki («Wisdom in Emptiness» in: Zen and the Birds of Appetite, 1968) explores the many congruencies of Christian mysticism and Zen. (Main publications: The Way of Chuang Tzu, 1965; Mystics and Zen Masters, 1967; Zen and the Birds of Appetite, 1968).

Reginald Horace Blyth (1898-1964) was an Englishman who went to Japan in 1940 to further his study of Zen. He was interned during the II World War and started writing in prison. He was tutor to the Crown Prince after the war. His greatest work is the 5-volume «Zen and Zen Classics», published in the 1960s. In it, he discusses Zen themes from a philosophical standpoint, often in conjunction with Christian elements in a comparative spirit. His essays include titles such as «God, Buddha, and Buddhahood» or «Zen Sin, and Death». He is an enthusiast of Zen, but not altogether uncritical of it. His writings can be characterized as unorthodox and quirky.

While Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance, by
Robert M. Pirsig, was a 1974 bestseller, it in fact has little to do with Zen as a religious practice. Rather it deals with the notion of the metaphysics of «quality» from the point of view of the main character. Pirsig was attending the Minnesota Zen Center at the time of writing the book[11]. He has stated that, despite its title, the book «should in no way be associated with that great body of factual information relating to orthodox Zen Buddhist practice.» Though it may not deal with orthodox Zen Buddhist practice, Pirsig’s book in fact deals with many of the more subtle facets of Zen living and Zen mentality without drawing attention to any religion or religious organization.

A number of contemporary authors have explored the relationship between Zen and a number of other disciplines, including parenting, teaching, and leadership. Leadership expert Timothy H. Warneka uses a number of Zen stories, such as «Understanding Harmony» to explain leadership strategies:

Once upon a time in ancient Japan, a young man was studying martial arts under a famous teacher. Every day the young man would practice in a courtyard along with the other students. One day, as the master watched, he could see that the other students were consistently interfering with the young man’s technique. Sensing the student’s frustration, the master approached the student and tapped him on the shoulder. “What is wrong?” inquired the teacher. “I cannot execute my technique and I do not understand why,” replied the student. “This is because you do not understand harmony. Please follow me,” said the master. Leaving the practice hall, the master and student walked a short distance into the woods until they came upon a stream. After standing silently beside the streambed for a few minutes, the master spoke. “Look at the water,” he instructed. “It does not slam into the rocks and stop out of frustration, but instead flows around them and continues down the stream. Become like the water and you will understand harmony.” Soon, the student learned to move and flow like the stream, and none of the other students could keep him from executing his techniques.^[34]

Western Zen lineages

Over the last fifty years mainstream forms of Zen, led by teachers who trained in East Asia and their successors, have begun to take root in the West.

In North America, the Zen lineages derived from the Japanese Soto school are the most numerous. Among these are the lineages of the San Francisco Zen Center, established by Shunryu Suzuki and the White Plum Asanga, founded by Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi. Suzuki’s San Francisco Zen Center established the first Zen Monastery in America in 1967, called Tassajara in the mountains near Big Sur. Maezumi’s successors have created schools including Great Plains Zen Center, founded by Susan Myoyu Andersen, Roshi, the Mountains and Rivers Order, founded by John Daido Loori, the Zen Peacemaker Order, founded by Bernard Tetsugen Glassman and the Ordinary Mind school, founded by Charlotte Joko Beck. The Katagiri lineage, founded by Dainin Katagiri, has a significant presence in the Midwest. Note that both Taizan Maezumi and Dainin Katagiri served as priests at Zenshuji Soto Mission in the 1960s.

Taisen Deshimaru, a student of Kodo Sawaki, was a Soto Zen priest from Japan who taught in France. The International Zen Association, which he founded, remains influential. The American Zen Association, headquartered at the New Orleans Zen Temple, is one of the North American organizations practicing in the Deshimaru tradition.

Soyu Matsuoka, served as superintendent and abbot of the Long Beach Zen Buddhist Temple and Zen Center. The Temple was headquarters to Zen Centers in Atlanta, Chicago, Los Angeles, Seattle, and Everett, Washington. He established the Temple at Long Beach in 1971 where he resided until his passing in 1998.

The Sanbo Kyodan is a Japan-based reformist Zen group, founded in 1954 by Yasutani Hakuun, which has had a significant influence on Zen in the West. Sanbo Kyodan Zen is based primarily on the Soto tradition, but also incorporates Rinzai-style koan practice. Yasutani’s approach to Zen first became prominent in the English-speaking world through Philip Kapleau‘s book The Three Pillars of Zen (1965), which was one of the first books to introduce Western audiences to Zen as a practice rather than simply a philosophy. Among the Zen groups in North America, Hawaii, Europe, and New Zealand which derive from Sanbo Kyodan are those associated with Kapleau, Robert Aitken, and John Tarrant.

In the UK, Throssel Hole Abbey was founded as a sister monastery to Shasta Abbey in California by Master Reverend Jiyu Kennett Roshi and has a number of dispersed Priories and centres. Jiyu Kennett, an English woman, was ordained as a priest and Zen master in Shoji-ji, one of the two main Soto Zen temples in Japan (her book The Wild White Goose describes her experiences in Japan). The Order is called the Order of Buddhist Contemplatives. The lineage of Hakuyu Taizan Maezumi Roshi is represented by the White Plum Sangha UK, while Taisen Deshimaru Roshi’s lineage is known in the UK as IZAUK (Intl Zen Assoc. UK). The Zen Centre in London is connected to the Buddhist Society. The Western Chan Fellowship is an association of lay Chan practitioners based in the UK. They are registered as a charity in England and Wales, but also have contacts in Europe, principally in Norway, Poland, Germany, Croatia, Switzerland and the USA.

There are also a number of Rinzai Zen centers in the West. In North America, some of the more prominent include Rinzai-ji founded by Kyozan Joshu Sasaki, Dai Bosatsu Zendo Kongo-ji established by Eido Shimano and Kyudo Nakagawi Roshi, Chozen-ji founded by Omori Sogen Roshi and Chobo-Ji founded by Genki Takabayshi. In Europe there is Egely Monastery established by a Dharma Heir of Eido Shimano, Denko Mortensen.

Not all the successful Zen teachers in the West have been from Japanese traditions. There have also been teachers of Chan, Seon, and Thien Buddhism. In addition, there are a number of Zen teachers who studied in Asian traditions that because of corruption or political issues decided to strike out on their own. One organization of this type is Open Mind Zen in Melbourne, Florida.

File:CTTBgate.jpg

The first Chinese master to teach Westerners in North America was Hsuan Hua, who taught Zen, Chinese Pure Land, Tiantai, Vinaya, and Vajrayana Buddhism in San Francisco during the early 1960s. He went on to found the City Of Ten Thousand Buddhas, a monastery and retreat center located on a 237 acre (959,000 m²) property near Ukiah, California. Another Chinese Zen teacher with a Western following is Sheng-yen, a master trained in both the Caodong and Linji schools (equivalent to the Japanese Soto and Rinzai, respectively). He first visited the United States in 1978 under the sponsorship of the Buddhist Association of the United States, and, in 1980, founded the Chan Meditation Center in Queens, New York.[12].

The most prominent Korean Zen teacher in the West was Seung Sahn. Seung Sahn founded the Providence Zen Center in Providence, Rhode Island; this was to become the headquarters of the Kwan Um School of Zen, a large international network of affiliated Zen centers.

Two notable Vietnamese Zen teachers have been influential in Western countries: Thich Thien-An and Thich Nhat Hanh. Thich Thien-An came to America in 1966 as a visiting professor at UCLA and taught traditional Thien meditation. Thich Nhat Hanh was a monk in Vietnam during the Vietnam War, during which he was a peace activist. In response to these activities, he was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize in 1967 by Martin Luther King, Jr. In 1966, he left Vietnam in exile and now resides at Plum Village, a monastery in France. He has written more than one hundred books about Buddhism, which have made him one of the very few most prominent Buddhist authors among the general readership in the West. In his books and talks, Thich Nhat Hanh emphasizes mindfulness (sati) as the most important practice in daily life.

Pan-lineage organizations

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In the United States, two pan-lineage organizations have formed in the last few years. The oldest is the American Zen Teachers Association which sponsors an annual conference. North American Soto teachers in North America, led by several of the heirs of Taizan Maezumi and Shunryu Suzuki, have also formed the Soto Zen Buddhist Association.

See also

List of Zen teachers Tathagatagarbha doctrine Timeline of Zen Buddhism in the United States Zen garden

Ensō The Book of Tea Tao Sheng Dialectical monism

Southern Chan Wuzhun Shifan Kensho Inka

Modern D. T. Suzuki Philip Kapleau Charlotte Joko Beck John Daido Loori Dennis Genpo Merzel

Eido Tai Shimano John Tarrant Robert Aitken Brad Warner Alan Watts Osho Rajneesh

Traditional Linji (Rinzai) Dōgen Hsu Yun

Notes

References

• Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History, 1: India and China, Bloomington, IN: World Wisdom, ISBN 0-941532-89-5.
• Hori, Victor Sogen, Zen Sand
• Miura, Isshū; Sasaki, Ruth Fuller (1993), The Zen Koan, New York: Harcourt Brace & Company, ISBN 0-15-699981-1
• Suzuki, D.T. (1949), Essays in Zen Buddhism, New York: Grove Press, ISBN 0-8021-5118-3.
• An Introduction to Zen Buddhism by D.T. Suzuki
• Nagatomo, Shigenori (2006-06-28), «Japanese Zen Buddhist Philosophy», Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
• Blackman, Sushila (1997). Graceful Exits: How Great Beings Die: Death Stories of Tibetan, Hindu & Zen Masters. Weatherhill, Inc.: USA, New York, New York. ISBN 0-8348-0391-7
• Brian Daizen Victoria: Zen at War, (War and Peace Library), Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2nd edition, (August 2006), ISBN 0742539261(10), ISBN 978-0742539266(13)

Further references

Abe, M. (1998). The self in Jung and Zen. New York, NY: North Point Press.

• Aitken, R. (1982). Zen practice and psychotherapy: Journal of Transpersonal Psychology Vol 14(2) 1982, 161-170.
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External links

• Zen Centers at the Open Directory Project
• Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library
• The International Research Institute for Zen Buddhism
• Joint Council for Rinzai and Obaku Zen
• Soto zen
• Shambhala Sun Zen Articles
• A Study on the Origin of Chan Buddhism
• Rinzai Zen, master Shodo Harada Roshi, Sogenji,Okayama
• Rochester Zen Center
• Means of Authorization: Establishing Hierarchy in Ch’an/Zen Buddhism in America
• Isthmus Zen Community of Madison, WI