Как пишется даниэль дефо

Daniel Defoe
Born	Daniel Foe c. 1660 London, England
Died	24 April 1731 (aged 70) London, England
Resting place	Bunhill Fields
Occupation	Writer, journalist, merchant
Genre	Adventure
Spouse	Mary Tuffley

Daniel Defoe (; born Daniel Foe; c. 1660 – 24 April 1731)^[1] was an English writer, trader, journalist, pamphleteer and spy. He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe, published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translations.^[2] He has been seen as one of the earliest proponents of the English novel, and helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson.^[3] Defoe wrote many political tracts, was often in trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted him.

Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than three hundred works^[4]—books, pamphlets, and journals — on diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology, and the supernatural. He was also a pioneer of business journalism^[5] and economic journalism.^[6]

Early life[edit]

Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St Giles Cripplegate, London.^[7] Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding «De» to his name, and on occasion made the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux.^[8] «De» is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames.^[9] His birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659 to 1662, with the summer or early autumn of 1660 considered the most likely.^[10] His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of Flemish descent,^[11][12][a] and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In Defoe’s early childhood, he experienced some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1665, 70,000 were killed by the Great Plague of London, and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only Defoe’s and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood.^[16] In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the raid on the Medway. His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten.^[17][18]

Education[edit]

Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fisher’s boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, Surrey.^[19] His parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton’s dissenting academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended the Dissenting church there.^[20][21] He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos. 95–103.^[22] During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the Church of England.

Business career[edit]

Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph’s Aldgate.^[23] She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day. Given his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children.^[17]

In 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1689, and Defoe became one of William’s close allies and a secret agent.^[17] Some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe.^[17] In 1692, he was arrested for debts of £700 and, in the face of total debts that may have amounted to £17,000, was forced to declare bankruptcy. He died with little wealth and evidently embroiled in lawsuits with the royal treasury.^[2]

Following his release from debtors’ prison, he probably travelled in Europe and Scotland,^[24] and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto and Lisbon. By 1695, he was back in England, now formally using the name «Defoe» and serving as a «commissioner of the glass duty», responsible for collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary.

Writing[edit]

As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes.

Pamphleteering and prison[edit]

Defoe’s first notable publication was An Essay Upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years’ War (1688–1697). His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more generally. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legion’s Memorial to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France.

The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists.^[17] Defoe was a natural target, and his pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July 1703, principally on account of his December 1702 pamphlet entitled The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church, purporting to argue for their extermination.^[25] In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called «occasional conformity», such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. It was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested.^[17] He was charged with seditious libel and found guilty in a trial at the Old Bailey in front of the notoriously sadistic judge Salathiel Lovell.^[6] Lovell sentenced him to a punitive fine of 200 marks (£336 then, £60,544 in 2023^[26]), to public humiliation in a pillory, and to an indeterminate length of imprisonment which would only end upon the discharge of the punitive fine.^[6] According to legend, the publication of his poem Hymn to the Pillory caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health. The truth of this story is questioned by most scholars, although John Robert Moore later said that «no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men».^[18]

After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into Newgate Prison. Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, brokered his release in exchange for Defoe’s cooperation as an intelligence agent for the Tories. In exchange for such cooperation with the rival political side, Harley paid some of Defoe’s outstanding debts, improving his financial situation considerably.^[17]

Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe witnessed the Great Storm of 1703, which raged through the night of 26/27 November. It caused severe damage to London and Bristol, uprooted millions of trees, and killed more than 8,000 people, mostly at sea. The event became the subject of Defoe’s The Storm (1704), which includes a collection of witness accounts of the tempest.^[27] Many regard it as one of the world’s first examples of modern journalism.^[28]

In the same year, he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France, which supported the Harley Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The Review ran three times a week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair.

When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the Review to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714. The Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing «Tory» pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view.^[17]

Not all of Defoe’s pamphlet writing was political. One pamphlet was originally published anonymously, entitled A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal the Next Day after her Death to One Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury the 8th of September, 1705. It deals with the interaction between the spiritual realm and the physical realm and was most likely written in support of Charles Drelincourt’s The Christian Defence against the Fears of Death (1651). It describes Mrs. Bargrave’s encounter with her old friend Mrs. Veal after she had died. It is clear from this piece and other writings that the political portion of Defoe’s life was by no means his only focus.

Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707[edit]

In despair during his imprisonment for the seditious libel case, Defoe wrote to William Paterson, the London Scot and founder of the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme, who was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, leading minister and spymaster in the English government. Harley accepted Defoe’s services and released him in 1703. He immediately published The Review, which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the Act of Union 1707.^[29]

Defoe began his campaign in The Review and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an «inexhaustible treasury of men», a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence in the Treaty of Union. He was conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such as The Letters of Daniel Defoe (edited by G. H. Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents.

His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. «A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind», he reported. Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that it was not known at the time that Defoe had been sent by Godolphin :

… to give a faithful account to him from time to time how everything past here. He was therefor a spy among us, but not known to be such, otherways the Mob of Edin. had pull him to pieces.^[30]

Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland. He told Harley that he was «privy to all their folly» but «Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England». He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported,

Having had the honour to be always sent for the committee to whom these amendments were referrèd,
I have had the good fortune to break their measures in two particulars via the bounty on Corn and
proportion of the Excise.

For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, for example, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union but always having the last word for himself.

He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate.

Aftermath[edit]

In 1709, Defoe authored a rather lengthy book entitled The History of the Union of Great Britain, an Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson.^[31]  The book cites Defoe twice as being its author^[32][33] and gives details leading up to the Acts of Union 1707 by means of presenting information that dates all the way back to 6 December 1604 when King James I was presented with a proposal for unification.^[34]  And so, such so-called «first draft» for unification took place just a little over 100 years before the signing of the 1707 accord, which respectively preceded the commencement of Robinson Crusoe by another ten years.

Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its independence from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and of course no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his Tour thro’ the whole Island of Great Britain, published in 1726, where he admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union was «not the case, but rather the contrary».

Defoe’s description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a «Dear Green Place» has often been misquoted as a Gaelic translation for the town’s name. The Gaelic Glas could mean grey or green, while chu means dog or hollow. Glaschu probably means «Green Hollow». The «Dear Green Place», like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron minister urged his congregation «to up and anent for the City of God».

The «Dear Green Place» and «City of God» required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was «because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against».^{[citation needed]}

Late writing[edit]

The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe’s writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to the publication of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715), a defence of his part in Harley’s Tory ministry (1710–1714). Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include The Family Instructor (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718), a satire of European politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris.

From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous (see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including Religious Courtship (1722), The Complete English Tradesman (1726) and The New Family Instructor (1727). He published a number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as The Great Law of Subordination Considered (1724) and Everybody’s Business is Nobody’s Business (1725) and works on the supernatural, like The Political History of the Devil (1726), A System of Magick (1727) and An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions (1727). His works on foreign travel and trade include A General History of Discoveries and Improvements (1727) and Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis (1728). Perhaps his most significant work, apart from the novels, is A tour thro’ the whole island of Great Britain (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.

The Complete English Tradesman[edit]

Published in 1726, The Complete English Tradesman is an example of Defoe’s political works. In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade is far superior.^[35] Defoe also implied that trade was the backbone of the British economy: «estate’s a pond, but trade’s a spring.»^[35] In the work, Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well. Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy.^[35] Oftentimes younger members of noble families entered into trade, and marriages to a tradesman’s daughter by a nobleman was also common. Overall, Defoe demonstrated a high respect for tradesmen, being one himself.

Not only did Defoe elevate individual British tradesmen to the level of gentleman, but he praised the entirety of British trade as a superior system to other systems of trade.^[35] Trade, Defoe argues, is a much better catalyst for social and economic change than war. Defoe also argued that through the expansion of the British Empire and British mercantile influence, Britain would be able to «increase commerce at home» through job creations and increased consumption.^[35] He wrote in the work that increased consumption, by laws of supply and demand, increases production and in turn raises wages for the poor therefore lifting part of British society further out of poverty.^[35]

Novels[edit]

Robinson Crusoe[edit]

Published when Defoe was in his late fifties,^[36] Robinson Crusoe relates the story of a man’s shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-eight years and his subsequent adventures. Throughout its episodic narrative, Crusoe’s struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he turns his back after his deliverances. He is finally content with his lot in life, separated from society, following a more genuine conversion experience.

In the opening pages of The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire, married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he went off on these further adventures. Bedford is also the place where the brother of «H. F.» in A Journal of the Plague Year retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not fiction, Defoe’s family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence the information in these books was gathered. Defoe went to school Newington Green with a friend named Caruso.

The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands,^[17] but his experience is inconsistent with the details of the narrative. The island Selkirk lived on, Más a Tierra (Closer to Land) was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island in 1966. It has been supposed that Defoe may have also been inspired by a translation of a book by the Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath Ibn Tufail, who was known as «Abubacer» in Europe. The Latin edition was entitled Philosophus Autodidactus;^{[37][38][39][40]} Simon Ockley published an English translation in 1708, entitled The improvement of human reason, exhibited in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan.

Captain Singleton[edit]

Defoe’s next novel was Captain Singleton (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy. The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters. Its description of the geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and suggests an eyewitness experience.

Memoirs of a Cavalier[edit]

Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720) is set during the Thirty Years’ War and the English Civil War.

A Journal of the Plague Year[edit]

A Journal of the Plague Year, published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction. It is an account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which is undersigned by the initials «H. F.», suggesting the author’s uncle Henry Foe as its primary source. It is a historical account of the events based on extensive research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it occurred.^{[41][42][43][44]}

Colonel Jack[edit]

Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by a problematic notion of becoming a «gentleman.»

Moll Flanders[edit]

Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders, another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist, and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to retain the reader’s sympathy. Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her a life of trials but ultimately an ending in reward. Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story. However, like Robinson Crusoe, she finally repents. Moll Flanders is an important work in the development of the novel, as it challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society.^[23] More recently it has come to be misunderstood as an example of erotica.^[46]

Roxana[edit]

Defoe’s final novel, Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she is relating her story.^{[citation needed]}

Patterns[edit]

In Defoe’s writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works. Defoe was well known for his didacticism, with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers (typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background).^[47] Connected to Defoe’s didacticism is his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography, particularly in Robinson Crusoe.^[48] Another common feature of Defoe’s fictional works is that he claimed them to be the true stories of their subjects.

Attribution and de-attribution[edit]

Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names.^[49] It was a very common practice in eighteenth-century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name, with most other authors at the time publishing their works anonymously.^[50] As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over the years to properly credit Defoe for all of the works that he wrote in his lifetime. If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his known pen name «the author of the True-Born Englishman,» there would be about 75 works that could be attributed to him.^{[citation needed]}

Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be attributed to Defoe. Writer George Chalmers was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously published works to Defoe. In History of the Union, he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as «Books which are supposed to be De Foe’s.»^[51] Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe.^{[citation needed]}

Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed could be Defoe’s work, without a means to be absolutely certain.^[52] In the Cambridge History of English Literature, the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe. J.R. Moore generated the largest list of Defoe’s work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he attributed to Defoe.^[51]

Death[edit]

Defoe died on 24 April 1731, probably while in hiding from his creditors. He was often in debtors’ prison.^[53] The cause of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably experienced a stroke.^[2] He was interred in Bunhill Fields (today Bunhill Fields Burial and Gardens), just outside the medieval boundaries of the City of London, in what is now the Borough of Islington, where a monument was erected to his memory in 1870.^[54]

Selected works[edit]

Novels[edit]

• The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon: Translated from the Lunar Language (1705)^[55]
• Robinson Crusoe (1719) – originally published in two volumes:^[55]
  • The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who Lived Eight and Twenty Years […]
  • The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: Being the Second and Last Part of His Life […]
• Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: With his Vision of the Angelick World (1720)
• Captain Singleton (1720)
• Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720)
• A Journal of the Plague Year (1722)
• Colonel Jack (1722)
• Moll Flanders (1722)
• Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724)

Nonfiction[edit]

• An Essay Upon Projects (1697) – subsections of the text include: «The History of Projects,» «Of Projectors,» «Of Banks,» «Of the Highways,» «Of Assurances,» «Of Friendly Societies,» «The Proposal is for a Pension Office,» «Of Wagering,» «Of Fools,» «A Charity-Lottery,» «Of Bankrupts,» «Of Academies» (including a section proposing an academy for women), «Of a Court Merchant,» and «Of Seamen.»
• The Storm (1704) – describes the worst storm ever to hit Britain in recorded times. Includes eyewitness accounts.
• Atlantis Major (1711)
• The Family Instructor (1715)
• Memoirs of the Church of Scotland (1717)
• The History of the Remarkable Life of John Sheppard (1724) – describing Sheppard’s life of crime and concluding with the miraculous escapes from prison for which he had become a public sensation.
• A Narrative of All The Robberies, Escapes, &c. of John Sheppard (1724) – written by or taken from Sheppard himself in the condemned cell before he was hanged for theft, apparently by way of conclusion to the Defoe work. According to the Introduction to Volume 16 of the works of Defoe published by J M Dent in 1895, Sheppard handed the manuscript to the publisher Applebee from the prisoners’ cart as he was taken away to be hanged. It included a correction of a factual detail and an explanation of how his escapes from prison were achieved.
• A tour thro’ the whole island of Great Britain, divided into circuits or journies (1724–1727)
• A New Voyage Round the World (1724)
• The Political History of the Devil (1726)
• The Complete English Tradesman (1726)
• A treatise concerning the use and abuse of the marriage bed… (1727)
• A Plan of the English Commerce (1728) – describes how the English woolen textile industrial base was developed by protectionist policies by Tudor monarchs, especially by Henry VII of England and Elizabeth I, including such policies as high tariffs on the importation of finished woolen goods, high taxes on raw wool leaving England, bringing in artisans skilled in wool textile manufacturing from the Low Countries, selective government-granted monopoly rights, and government-sponsored industrial espionage.

Pamphlets or essays in prose[edit]

• The Poor Man’s Plea (1698)
• The History of the Kentish Petition (1701)
• The Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702)
• The Great Law of Subordination Consider’d (1704)
• Giving Alms No Charity, and Employing the Poor (1704)
• The Apparition of Mrs. Veal (1706)
• An Appeal to Honour and Justice, Tho’ it be of his Worst Enemies, by Daniel Defoe, Being a True Account of His Conduct in Publick Affairs (1715)
• A Vindication of the Press: Or, An Essay on the Usefulness of Writing, on Criticism, and the Qualification of Authors (1718)
• Every-body’s Business, Is No-body’s Business (1725)
• The Protestant Monastery (1726)
• Parochial Tyranny (1727)
• Augusta Triumphans (1728)
• Second Thoughts are Best (1729)
• An Essay Upon Literature (1726)
• Mere Nature Delineated (1726)
• Conjugal Lewdness (1727) – Anti-Contraception Essay

Pamphlets or essays in verse[edit]

• The True-Born Englishman: A Satyr (1701)
• Hymn to the Pillory (1703)
• An Essay on the Late Storm (1704)

Some contested works attributed to Defoe[edit]

• A Friendly Epistle by way of reproof from one of the people called Quakers, to T. B., a dealer in many words (1715).
• The King of Pirates (1719) – purporting to be an account of the pirate Henry Avery.
• The Pirate Gow (1725) – an account of John Gow.
• A General History of the Pyrates (1724, 1725, 1726, 1828) – published in two volumes by Charles Rivington, who had a shop near St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Published under the name of Captain Charles Johnson, it sold in many editions.
• Captain Carleton’s Memoirs of an English Officer (1728).^[56]
• The life and adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call’d Mother Ross (1740) – published anonymously; printed and sold by R. Montagu in London; and attributed to Defoe but more recently not accepted.^[57]

See also[edit]

• Apprentice complex
• Moubray House

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Primary sources[edit]

• Curtis, Laura Ann, ed. The Versatile Defoe: An Anthology of Uncollected Writings by Daniel Defoe (Rowman and Littlefield, 1979).
• Defoe, Daniel. The Best of Defoe’s Review: An Anthology (Columbia University Press, 1951).
• W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. The True-Born Englishman and Other Writings (Penguin Books, 1997).
• W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Political and Economic Writings of Daniel Defoe (Pickering & Chatto, 2000).
• W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Writings on Travel, Discovery, and History (Pickering & Chatto, 2001–2002).

External links[edit]

• Works by Daniel Defoe in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
• Works by Daniel Defoe at Project Gutenberg
• Works by Daniel DeFoe at Faded Page (Canada)
• Works by or about Daniel Defoe at Internet Archive
• Works by Daniel Defoe at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Full online versions of various copies of Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe and the Robinsonades
• Full texts in German and English – eLibrary Projekt (eLib)
• The Journeys of Daniel Defoe around Britain (from a Vision of Britain)
• Saintsbury, George (1878). «Daniel Defoe» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VII (9th ed.). pp. 26–31.
• «Defoe, Daniel» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 927–931.
• Russian toponyms in Daniel Defoe’s novels
• Defoe, Daniel 1661?–1731 WorldCat Identity
• A System of Magick
• The Thief-Taker Hangings: How Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard Captivated London and Created the Celebrity Criminal by Aaron Skirboll

Daniel Defoe
Born	Daniel Foe c. 1660 London, England
Died	24 April 1731 (aged 70) London, England
Resting place	Bunhill Fields
Occupation	Writer, journalist, merchant
Genre	Adventure
Spouse	Mary Tuffley

Daniel Defoe (; born Daniel Foe; c. 1660 – 24 April 1731)^[1] was an English writer, trader, journalist, pamphleteer and spy. He is most famous for his novel Robinson Crusoe, published in 1719, which is claimed to be second only to the Bible in its number of translations.^[2] He has been seen as one of the earliest proponents of the English novel, and helped to popularise the form in Britain with others such as Aphra Behn and Samuel Richardson.^[3] Defoe wrote many political tracts, was often in trouble with the authorities, and spent a period in prison. Intellectuals and political leaders paid attention to his fresh ideas and sometimes consulted him.

Defoe was a prolific and versatile writer, producing more than three hundred works^[4]—books, pamphlets, and journals — on diverse topics, including politics, crime, religion, marriage, psychology, and the supernatural. He was also a pioneer of business journalism^[5] and economic journalism.^[6]

Early life[edit]

Daniel Foe (his original name) was probably born in Fore Street in the parish of St Giles Cripplegate, London.^[7] Defoe later added the aristocratic-sounding «De» to his name, and on occasion made the false claim of descent from a family named De Beau Faux.^[8] «De» is also a common prefix in Flemish surnames.^[9] His birthdate and birthplace are uncertain, and sources offer dates from 1659 to 1662, with the summer or early autumn of 1660 considered the most likely.^[10] His father, James Foe, was a prosperous tallow chandler of Flemish descent,^[11][12][a] and a member of the Worshipful Company of Butchers. In Defoe’s early childhood, he experienced some of the most unusual occurrences in English history: in 1665, 70,000 were killed by the Great Plague of London, and the next year, the Great Fire of London left only Defoe’s and two other houses standing in his neighbourhood.^[16] In 1667, when he was probably about seven, a Dutch fleet sailed up the Medway via the River Thames and attacked the town of Chatham in the raid on the Medway. His mother, Alice, had died by the time he was about ten.^[17][18]

Education[edit]

Defoe was educated at the Rev. James Fisher’s boarding school in Pixham Lane in Dorking, Surrey.^[19] His parents were Presbyterian dissenters, and around the age of 14, he was sent to Charles Morton’s dissenting academy at Newington Green, then a village just north of London, where he is believed to have attended the Dissenting church there.^[20][21] He lived on Church Street, Stoke Newington, at what is now nos. 95–103.^[22] During this period, the English government persecuted those who chose to worship outside the Church of England.

Business career[edit]

Defoe entered the world of business as a general merchant, dealing at different times in hosiery, general woollen goods, and wine. His ambitions were great and he was able to buy a country estate and a ship (as well as civets to make perfume), though he was rarely out of debt. On 1 January 1684, Defoe married Mary Tuffley at St Botolph’s Aldgate.^[23] She was the daughter of a London merchant, and brought with her a dowry of £3,700—a huge amount by the standards of the day. Given his debts and political difficulties, the marriage may have been troubled, but it lasted 47 years and produced eight children.^[17]

In 1685, Defoe joined the ill-fated Monmouth Rebellion but gained a pardon, by which he escaped the Bloody Assizes of Judge George Jeffreys. Queen Mary and her husband William III were jointly crowned in 1689, and Defoe became one of William’s close allies and a secret agent.^[17] Some of the new policies led to conflict with France, thus damaging prosperous trade relationships for Defoe.^[17] In 1692, he was arrested for debts of £700 and, in the face of total debts that may have amounted to £17,000, was forced to declare bankruptcy. He died with little wealth and evidently embroiled in lawsuits with the royal treasury.^[2]

Following his release from debtors’ prison, he probably travelled in Europe and Scotland,^[24] and it may have been at this time that he traded wine to Cadiz, Porto and Lisbon. By 1695, he was back in England, now formally using the name «Defoe» and serving as a «commissioner of the glass duty», responsible for collecting taxes on bottles. In 1696, he ran a tile and brick factory in what is now Tilbury in Essex and lived in the parish of Chadwell St Mary.

Writing[edit]

As many as 545 titles have been attributed to Defoe, including satirical poems, political and religious pamphlets, and volumes.

Pamphleteering and prison[edit]

Defoe’s first notable publication was An Essay Upon Projects, a series of proposals for social and economic improvement, published in 1697. From 1697 to 1698, he defended the right of King William III to a standing army during disarmament, after the Treaty of Ryswick (1697) had ended the Nine Years’ War (1688–1697). His most successful poem, The True-Born Englishman (1701), defended William against xenophobic attacks from his political enemies in England, and English anti-immigration sentiments more generally. In 1701, Defoe presented the Legion’s Memorial to Robert Harley, then Speaker of the House of Commons—and his subsequent employer—while flanked by a guard of sixteen gentlemen of quality. It demanded the release of the Kentish petitioners, who had asked Parliament to support the king in an imminent war against France.

The death of William III in 1702 once again created a political upheaval, as the king was replaced by Queen Anne who immediately began her offensive against Nonconformists.^[17] Defoe was a natural target, and his pamphleteering and political activities resulted in his arrest and placement in a pillory on 31 July 1703, principally on account of his December 1702 pamphlet entitled The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church, purporting to argue for their extermination.^[25] In it, he ruthlessly satirised both the high church Tories and those Dissenters who hypocritically practised so-called «occasional conformity», such as his Stoke Newington neighbour Sir Thomas Abney. It was published anonymously, but the true authorship was quickly discovered and Defoe was arrested.^[17] He was charged with seditious libel and found guilty in a trial at the Old Bailey in front of the notoriously sadistic judge Salathiel Lovell.^[6] Lovell sentenced him to a punitive fine of 200 marks (£336 then, £60,544 in 2023^[26]), to public humiliation in a pillory, and to an indeterminate length of imprisonment which would only end upon the discharge of the punitive fine.^[6] According to legend, the publication of his poem Hymn to the Pillory caused his audience at the pillory to throw flowers instead of the customary harmful and noxious objects and to drink to his health. The truth of this story is questioned by most scholars, although John Robert Moore later said that «no man in England but Defoe ever stood in the pillory and later rose to eminence among his fellow men».^[18]

After his three days in the pillory, Defoe went into Newgate Prison. Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, brokered his release in exchange for Defoe’s cooperation as an intelligence agent for the Tories. In exchange for such cooperation with the rival political side, Harley paid some of Defoe’s outstanding debts, improving his financial situation considerably.^[17]

Within a week of his release from prison, Defoe witnessed the Great Storm of 1703, which raged through the night of 26/27 November. It caused severe damage to London and Bristol, uprooted millions of trees, and killed more than 8,000 people, mostly at sea. The event became the subject of Defoe’s The Storm (1704), which includes a collection of witness accounts of the tempest.^[27] Many regard it as one of the world’s first examples of modern journalism.^[28]

In the same year, he set up his periodical A Review of the Affairs of France, which supported the Harley Ministry, chronicling the events of the War of the Spanish Succession (1702–1714). The Review ran three times a week without interruption until 1713. Defoe was amazed that a man as gifted as Harley left vital state papers lying in the open, and warned that he was almost inviting an unscrupulous clerk to commit treason; his warnings were fully justified by the William Gregg affair.

When Harley was ousted from the ministry in 1708, Defoe continued writing the Review to support Godolphin, then again to support Harley and the Tories in the Tory ministry of 1710–1714. The Tories fell from power with the death of Queen Anne, but Defoe continued doing intelligence work for the Whig government, writing «Tory» pamphlets that undermined the Tory point of view.^[17]

Not all of Defoe’s pamphlet writing was political. One pamphlet was originally published anonymously, entitled A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal the Next Day after her Death to One Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury the 8th of September, 1705. It deals with the interaction between the spiritual realm and the physical realm and was most likely written in support of Charles Drelincourt’s The Christian Defence against the Fears of Death (1651). It describes Mrs. Bargrave’s encounter with her old friend Mrs. Veal after she had died. It is clear from this piece and other writings that the political portion of Defoe’s life was by no means his only focus.

Anglo-Scottish Union of 1707[edit]

In despair during his imprisonment for the seditious libel case, Defoe wrote to William Paterson, the London Scot and founder of the Bank of England and part instigator of the Darien scheme, who was in the confidence of Robert Harley, 1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer, leading minister and spymaster in the English government. Harley accepted Defoe’s services and released him in 1703. He immediately published The Review, which appeared weekly, then three times a week, written mostly by himself. This was the main mouthpiece of the English Government promoting the Act of Union 1707.^[29]

Defoe began his campaign in The Review and other pamphlets aimed at English opinion, claiming that it would end the threat from the north, gaining for the Treasury an «inexhaustible treasury of men», a valuable new market increasing the power of England. By September 1706, Harley ordered Defoe to Edinburgh as a secret agent to do everything possible to help secure acquiescence in the Treaty of Union. He was conscious of the risk to himself. Thanks to books such as The Letters of Daniel Defoe (edited by G. H. Healey, Oxford 1955), far more is known about his activities than is usual with such agents.

His first reports included vivid descriptions of violent demonstrations against the Union. «A Scots rabble is the worst of its kind», he reported. Years later John Clerk of Penicuik, a leading Unionist, wrote in his memoirs that it was not known at the time that Defoe had been sent by Godolphin :

… to give a faithful account to him from time to time how everything past here. He was therefor a spy among us, but not known to be such, otherways the Mob of Edin. had pull him to pieces.^[30]

Defoe was a Presbyterian who had suffered in England for his convictions, and as such he was accepted as an adviser to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland and committees of the Parliament of Scotland. He told Harley that he was «privy to all their folly» but «Perfectly unsuspected as with corresponding with anybody in England». He was then able to influence the proposals that were put to Parliament and reported,

Having had the honour to be always sent for the committee to whom these amendments were referrèd,
I have had the good fortune to break their measures in two particulars via the bounty on Corn and
proportion of the Excise.

For Scotland, he used different arguments, even the opposite of those which he used in England, usually ignoring the English doctrine of the Sovereignty of Parliament, for example, telling the Scots that they could have complete confidence in the guarantees in the Treaty. Some of his pamphlets were purported to be written by Scots, misleading even reputable historians into quoting them as evidence of Scottish opinion of the time. The same is true of a massive history of the Union which Defoe published in 1709 and which some historians still treat as a valuable contemporary source for their own works. Defoe took pains to give his history an air of objectivity by giving some space to arguments against the Union but always having the last word for himself.

He disposed of the main Union opponent, Andrew Fletcher of Saltoun, by ignoring him. Nor does he account for the deviousness of the Duke of Hamilton, the official leader of the various factions opposed to the Union, who seemingly betrayed his former colleagues when he switched to the Unionist/Government side in the decisive final stages of the debate.

Aftermath[edit]

In 1709, Defoe authored a rather lengthy book entitled The History of the Union of Great Britain, an Edinburgh publication printed by the Heirs of Anderson.^[31]  The book cites Defoe twice as being its author^[32][33] and gives details leading up to the Acts of Union 1707 by means of presenting information that dates all the way back to 6 December 1604 when King James I was presented with a proposal for unification.^[34]  And so, such so-called «first draft» for unification took place just a little over 100 years before the signing of the 1707 accord, which respectively preceded the commencement of Robinson Crusoe by another ten years.

Defoe made no attempt to explain why the same Parliament of Scotland which was so vehement for its independence from 1703 to 1705 became so supine in 1706. He received very little reward from his paymasters and of course no recognition for his services by the government. He made use of his Scottish experience to write his Tour thro’ the whole Island of Great Britain, published in 1726, where he admitted that the increase of trade and population in Scotland which he had predicted as a consequence of the Union was «not the case, but rather the contrary».

Defoe’s description of Glasgow (Glaschu) as a «Dear Green Place» has often been misquoted as a Gaelic translation for the town’s name. The Gaelic Glas could mean grey or green, while chu means dog or hollow. Glaschu probably means «Green Hollow». The «Dear Green Place», like much of Scotland, was a hotbed of unrest against the Union. The local Tron minister urged his congregation «to up and anent for the City of God».

The «Dear Green Place» and «City of God» required government troops to put down the rioters tearing up copies of the Treaty at almost every mercat cross in Scotland. When Defoe visited in the mid-1720s, he claimed that the hostility towards his party was «because they were English and because of the Union, which they were almost universally exclaimed against».^{[citation needed]}

Late writing[edit]

The extent and particulars are widely contested concerning Defoe’s writing in the period from the Tory fall in 1714 to the publication of Robinson Crusoe in 1719. Defoe comments on the tendency to attribute tracts of uncertain authorship to him in his apologia Appeal to Honour and Justice (1715), a defence of his part in Harley’s Tory ministry (1710–1714). Other works that anticipate his novelistic career include The Family Instructor (1715), a conduct manual on religious duty; Minutes of the Negotiations of Monsr. Mesnager (1717), in which he impersonates Nicolas Mesnager, the French plenipotentiary who negotiated the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); and A Continuation of the Letters Writ by a Turkish Spy (1718), a satire of European politics and religion, ostensibly written by a Muslim in Paris.

From 1719 to 1724, Defoe published the novels for which he is famous (see below). In the final decade of his life, he also wrote conduct manuals, including Religious Courtship (1722), The Complete English Tradesman (1726) and The New Family Instructor (1727). He published a number of books decrying the breakdown of the social order, such as The Great Law of Subordination Considered (1724) and Everybody’s Business is Nobody’s Business (1725) and works on the supernatural, like The Political History of the Devil (1726), A System of Magick (1727) and An Essay on the History and Reality of Apparitions (1727). His works on foreign travel and trade include A General History of Discoveries and Improvements (1727) and Atlas Maritimus and Commercialis (1728). Perhaps his most significant work, apart from the novels, is A tour thro’ the whole island of Great Britain (1724–1727), which provided a panoramic survey of British trade on the eve of the Industrial Revolution.

The Complete English Tradesman[edit]

Published in 1726, The Complete English Tradesman is an example of Defoe’s political works. In the work, Defoe discussed the role of the tradesman in England in comparison to tradesmen internationally, arguing that the British system of trade is far superior.^[35] Defoe also implied that trade was the backbone of the British economy: «estate’s a pond, but trade’s a spring.»^[35] In the work, Defoe praised the practicality of trade not only within the economy but the social stratification as well. Defoe argued that most of the British gentry was at one time or another inextricably linked with the institution of trade, either through personal experience, marriage or genealogy.^[35] Oftentimes younger members of noble families entered into trade, and marriages to a tradesman’s daughter by a nobleman was also common. Overall, Defoe demonstrated a high respect for tradesmen, being one himself.

Not only did Defoe elevate individual British tradesmen to the level of gentleman, but he praised the entirety of British trade as a superior system to other systems of trade.^[35] Trade, Defoe argues, is a much better catalyst for social and economic change than war. Defoe also argued that through the expansion of the British Empire and British mercantile influence, Britain would be able to «increase commerce at home» through job creations and increased consumption.^[35] He wrote in the work that increased consumption, by laws of supply and demand, increases production and in turn raises wages for the poor therefore lifting part of British society further out of poverty.^[35]

Novels[edit]

Robinson Crusoe[edit]

Published when Defoe was in his late fifties,^[36] Robinson Crusoe relates the story of a man’s shipwreck on a desert island for twenty-eight years and his subsequent adventures. Throughout its episodic narrative, Crusoe’s struggles with faith are apparent as he bargains with God in times of life-threatening crises, but time and again he turns his back after his deliverances. He is finally content with his lot in life, separated from society, following a more genuine conversion experience.

In the opening pages of The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, the author describes how Crusoe settled in Bedfordshire, married and produced a family, and that when his wife died, he went off on these further adventures. Bedford is also the place where the brother of «H. F.» in A Journal of the Plague Year retired to avoid the danger of the plague, so that by implication, if these works were not fiction, Defoe’s family met Crusoe in Bedford, from whence the information in these books was gathered. Defoe went to school Newington Green with a friend named Caruso.

The novel has been assumed to be based in part on the story of the Scottish castaway Alexander Selkirk, who spent four years stranded in the Juan Fernández Islands,^[17] but his experience is inconsistent with the details of the narrative. The island Selkirk lived on, Más a Tierra (Closer to Land) was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island in 1966. It has been supposed that Defoe may have also been inspired by a translation of a book by the Andalusian-Arab Muslim polymath Ibn Tufail, who was known as «Abubacer» in Europe. The Latin edition was entitled Philosophus Autodidactus;^{[37][38][39][40]} Simon Ockley published an English translation in 1708, entitled The improvement of human reason, exhibited in the life of Hai ebn Yokdhan.

Captain Singleton[edit]

Defoe’s next novel was Captain Singleton (1720), an adventure story whose first half covers a traversal of Africa which anticipated subsequent discoveries by David Livingstone and whose second half taps into the contemporary fascination with piracy. The novel has been commended for its sensitive depiction of the close relationship between the hero and his religious mentor, Quaker William Walters. Its description of the geography of Africa and some of its fauna does not use the language or knowledge of a fiction writer and suggests an eyewitness experience.

Memoirs of a Cavalier[edit]

Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720) is set during the Thirty Years’ War and the English Civil War.

A Journal of the Plague Year[edit]

A Journal of the Plague Year, published in 1722, can be read both as novel and as nonfiction. It is an account of the Great Plague of London in 1665, which is undersigned by the initials «H. F.», suggesting the author’s uncle Henry Foe as its primary source. It is a historical account of the events based on extensive research and written as if by an eyewitness, even though Defoe was only about five years old when it occurred.^{[41][42][43][44]}

Colonel Jack[edit]

Colonel Jack (1722) follows an orphaned boy from a life of poverty and crime to prosperity in the colonies, military and marital imbroglios, and religious conversion, driven by a problematic notion of becoming a «gentleman.»

Moll Flanders[edit]

Also in 1722, Defoe wrote Moll Flanders, another first-person picaresque novel of the fall and eventual redemption, both material and spiritual, of a lone woman in 17th-century England. The titular heroine appears as a whore, bigamist, and thief, lives in The Mint, commits adultery and incest, and yet manages to retain the reader’s sympathy. Her savvy manipulation of both men and wealth earns her a life of trials but ultimately an ending in reward. Although Moll struggles with the morality of some of her actions and decisions, religion seems to be far from her concerns throughout most of her story. However, like Robinson Crusoe, she finally repents. Moll Flanders is an important work in the development of the novel, as it challenged the common perception of femininity and gender roles in 18th-century British society.^[23] More recently it has come to be misunderstood as an example of erotica.^[46]

Roxana[edit]

Defoe’s final novel, Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724), which narrates the moral and spiritual decline of a high society courtesan, differs from other Defoe works because the main character does not exhibit a conversion experience, even though she claims to be a penitent later in her life, at the time that she is relating her story.^{[citation needed]}

Patterns[edit]

In Defoe’s writings, especially in his fiction, are traits that can be seen across his works. Defoe was well known for his didacticism, with most of his works aiming to convey a message of some kind to the readers (typically a moral one, stemming from his religious background).^[47] Connected to Defoe’s didacticism is his use of the genre of spiritual autobiography, particularly in Robinson Crusoe.^[48] Another common feature of Defoe’s fictional works is that he claimed them to be the true stories of their subjects.

Attribution and de-attribution[edit]

Defoe is known to have used at least 198 pen names.^[49] It was a very common practice in eighteenth-century novel publishing to initially publish works under a pen name, with most other authors at the time publishing their works anonymously.^[50] As a result of the anonymous ways in which most of his works were published, it has been a challenge for scholars over the years to properly credit Defoe for all of the works that he wrote in his lifetime. If counting only works that Defoe published under his own name, or his known pen name «the author of the True-Born Englishman,» there would be about 75 works that could be attributed to him.^{[citation needed]}

Beyond these 75 works, scholars have used a variety of strategies to determine what other works should be attributed to Defoe. Writer George Chalmers was the first to begin the work of attributing anonymously published works to Defoe. In History of the Union, he created an expanded list with over a hundred titles that he attributed to Defoe, alongside twenty additional works that he designated as «Books which are supposed to be De Foe’s.»^[51] Chalmers included works in his canon of Defoe that were particularly in line with his style and way of thinking, and ultimately attributed 174 works to Defoe.^{[citation needed]}

Biographer P. N. Furbank and W. R. Owens built upon this canon, also relying on what they believed could be Defoe’s work, without a means to be absolutely certain.^[52] In the Cambridge History of English Literature, the section on Defoe by author William P. Trent attributes 370 works to Defoe. J.R. Moore generated the largest list of Defoe’s work, with approximately five hundred and fifty works that he attributed to Defoe.^[51]

Death[edit]

Defoe died on 24 April 1731, probably while in hiding from his creditors. He was often in debtors’ prison.^[53] The cause of his death was labelled as lethargy, but he probably experienced a stroke.^[2] He was interred in Bunhill Fields (today Bunhill Fields Burial and Gardens), just outside the medieval boundaries of the City of London, in what is now the Borough of Islington, where a monument was erected to his memory in 1870.^[54]

Selected works[edit]

Novels[edit]

• The Consolidator, or Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon: Translated from the Lunar Language (1705)^[55]
• Robinson Crusoe (1719) – originally published in two volumes:^[55]
  • The Life and Strange Surprizing Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, of York, Mariner: Who Lived Eight and Twenty Years […]
  • The Farther Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: Being the Second and Last Part of His Life […]
• Serious Reflections During the Life and Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe: With his Vision of the Angelick World (1720)
• Captain Singleton (1720)
• Memoirs of a Cavalier (1720)
• A Journal of the Plague Year (1722)
• Colonel Jack (1722)
• Moll Flanders (1722)
• Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress (1724)

Nonfiction[edit]

• An Essay Upon Projects (1697) – subsections of the text include: «The History of Projects,» «Of Projectors,» «Of Banks,» «Of the Highways,» «Of Assurances,» «Of Friendly Societies,» «The Proposal is for a Pension Office,» «Of Wagering,» «Of Fools,» «A Charity-Lottery,» «Of Bankrupts,» «Of Academies» (including a section proposing an academy for women), «Of a Court Merchant,» and «Of Seamen.»
• The Storm (1704) – describes the worst storm ever to hit Britain in recorded times. Includes eyewitness accounts.
• Atlantis Major (1711)
• The Family Instructor (1715)
• Memoirs of the Church of Scotland (1717)
• The History of the Remarkable Life of John Sheppard (1724) – describing Sheppard’s life of crime and concluding with the miraculous escapes from prison for which he had become a public sensation.
• A Narrative of All The Robberies, Escapes, &c. of John Sheppard (1724) – written by or taken from Sheppard himself in the condemned cell before he was hanged for theft, apparently by way of conclusion to the Defoe work. According to the Introduction to Volume 16 of the works of Defoe published by J M Dent in 1895, Sheppard handed the manuscript to the publisher Applebee from the prisoners’ cart as he was taken away to be hanged. It included a correction of a factual detail and an explanation of how his escapes from prison were achieved.
• A tour thro’ the whole island of Great Britain, divided into circuits or journies (1724–1727)
• A New Voyage Round the World (1724)
• The Political History of the Devil (1726)
• The Complete English Tradesman (1726)
• A treatise concerning the use and abuse of the marriage bed… (1727)
• A Plan of the English Commerce (1728) – describes how the English woolen textile industrial base was developed by protectionist policies by Tudor monarchs, especially by Henry VII of England and Elizabeth I, including such policies as high tariffs on the importation of finished woolen goods, high taxes on raw wool leaving England, bringing in artisans skilled in wool textile manufacturing from the Low Countries, selective government-granted monopoly rights, and government-sponsored industrial espionage.

Pamphlets or essays in prose[edit]

• The Poor Man’s Plea (1698)
• The History of the Kentish Petition (1701)
• The Shortest Way with the Dissenters (1702)
• The Great Law of Subordination Consider’d (1704)
• Giving Alms No Charity, and Employing the Poor (1704)
• The Apparition of Mrs. Veal (1706)
• An Appeal to Honour and Justice, Tho’ it be of his Worst Enemies, by Daniel Defoe, Being a True Account of His Conduct in Publick Affairs (1715)
• A Vindication of the Press: Or, An Essay on the Usefulness of Writing, on Criticism, and the Qualification of Authors (1718)
• Every-body’s Business, Is No-body’s Business (1725)
• The Protestant Monastery (1726)
• Parochial Tyranny (1727)
• Augusta Triumphans (1728)
• Second Thoughts are Best (1729)
• An Essay Upon Literature (1726)
• Mere Nature Delineated (1726)
• Conjugal Lewdness (1727) – Anti-Contraception Essay

Pamphlets or essays in verse[edit]

• The True-Born Englishman: A Satyr (1701)
• Hymn to the Pillory (1703)
• An Essay on the Late Storm (1704)

Some contested works attributed to Defoe[edit]

• A Friendly Epistle by way of reproof from one of the people called Quakers, to T. B., a dealer in many words (1715).
• The King of Pirates (1719) – purporting to be an account of the pirate Henry Avery.
• The Pirate Gow (1725) – an account of John Gow.
• A General History of the Pyrates (1724, 1725, 1726, 1828) – published in two volumes by Charles Rivington, who had a shop near St. Paul’s Cathedral, London. Published under the name of Captain Charles Johnson, it sold in many editions.
• Captain Carleton’s Memoirs of an English Officer (1728).^[56]
• The life and adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call’d Mother Ross (1740) – published anonymously; printed and sold by R. Montagu in London; and attributed to Defoe but more recently not accepted.^[57]

See also[edit]

• Apprentice complex
• Moubray House

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Primary sources[edit]

• Curtis, Laura Ann, ed. The Versatile Defoe: An Anthology of Uncollected Writings by Daniel Defoe (Rowman and Littlefield, 1979).
• Defoe, Daniel. The Best of Defoe’s Review: An Anthology (Columbia University Press, 1951).
• W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. The True-Born Englishman and Other Writings (Penguin Books, 1997).
• W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Political and Economic Writings of Daniel Defoe (Pickering & Chatto, 2000).
• W. R. Owens, and Philip Nicholas Furbank, eds. Writings on Travel, Discovery, and History (Pickering & Chatto, 2001–2002).

External links[edit]

• Works by Daniel Defoe in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
• Works by Daniel Defoe at Project Gutenberg
• Works by Daniel DeFoe at Faded Page (Canada)
• Works by or about Daniel Defoe at Internet Archive
• Works by Daniel Defoe at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
• Full online versions of various copies of Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe and the Robinsonades
• Full texts in German and English – eLibrary Projekt (eLib)
• The Journeys of Daniel Defoe around Britain (from a Vision of Britain)
• Saintsbury, George (1878). «Daniel Defoe» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. VII (9th ed.). pp. 26–31.
• «Defoe, Daniel» . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 927–931.
• Russian toponyms in Daniel Defoe’s novels
• Defoe, Daniel 1661?–1731 WorldCat Identity
• A System of Magick
• The Thief-Taker Hangings: How Daniel Defoe, Jonathan Wild, and Jack Sheppard Captivated London and Created the Celebrity Criminal by Aaron Skirboll

Роль и место в литературе

Даниэль Дефо – выдающийся представитель эпохи Просвещения. Кроме знаменитого романа «Приключения Робинзона» автор оставил наследие в виде полутысячи художественных и публицистических текстов. Все они стали известными не только в Англии, но и во всем мире.

Влияние Д. Дефо на европейскую литературу не ограничивается его самым известным романом. Он привнес в литературу тему одиночества человека на фоне природы, что приводит к духовному совершенствованию и раскрепощению.

Помимо написания произведений Даниэль Дефо занимался предпринимательством, издательской деятельностью, хорошо разбирался в политике. Обладая талантом публициста, он своими памфлетами затрагивал острые темы общественной и политической жизни Англии. Выступал в защиту свободы слова и здравомыслия.

Его публицистика имела воздействие и на правительство, и на короля, и на простой народ. Созданные им художественные произведения несли просветительские идеи, характерные для многих творений той эпохи.

Происхождение и ранние годы

Даниель Дефо родился в Лондоне, в 1660 году. Точная дата рождения остается неизвестной, так как церковные записи были уничтожены пожаром. Его отец носил имя Джеймс Фо и был довольно зажиточным торговцем. Мать ушла из жизни, когда мальчику было всего 8 лет. Спустя годы, уже, будучи взрослым, Даниэль, добавив две буквы к фамилии, превратил ее в свой литературный псевдоним Дефо, под которым его знает весь мир.

Образование

Отец готовил мальчика к церковной карьере и в возрасте 14 лет отдал его в семинарию, желая видеть сына священнослужителем. Даниэль был способным и окончил не только школу, но и академию. Во время обучения у него появился интерес к классической литературе и языкам. Еще будучи студентом, он уже писал стихи на религиозные темы и овладел несколькими иностранными языками.

Однако, перспективы духовной карьеры вскоре уступили место более реальным коммерческим идеям, и несостоявшийся священник занялся торговлей. Врожденная коммерческая жилка позволила ему в двадцатилетнем возрасте открыть чулочное производство. Это предприятие в течение 10 лет обеспечивало ему хороший доход. Позже он торговал в странах Европы строительными материалами, вином и табачными изделиями.

Благодаря торговой деятельности, Даниэль получил возможность много и долго путешествовать. Он побывал во всех странах Пиренейского полуострова, где знакомился с местной культурой, литературой и подтягивал знания в языках.

Творчество

Жизнь Даниэля была разнообразной и насыщенной. В молодом возрасте он начал интересоваться политикой, и был участником восстания против короля Якова II. За участие в мятеже подвергся гонениям и скрывался в разных городах от тюремного преследования.

После изгнания Якова II на престол вступил Вильгельм III, что позволило буржуазии занять свои позиции наравне с аристократией. Даниэль возвращается, чтобы заняться своими коммерческими делами. В это же время его начинает интересовать журналистика.

Одно за другим появляются его публицистические произведения. Он не занимал каких-либо государственных должностей но, при этом, имел влияние на правительство.

В 1701 г. Даниэль Дефо сочинил памфлет «Чистокровный англичанин», в котором подверг критике аристократию. 80 тысяч экземпляров моментально были распроданы. Но популярность обернулась наказанием в виде позорного столба и огромного штрафа. Его гражданская и деловая репутация пошатнулись, и его коммерческая деятельность по производству черепицы была свернута.

На помощь Дефо пришел министр Роберт Харли. В 1704 году он дал ему работу в периодическом издании «Ревю». Дефо до 1713 года работал журналистом и редактором, а его комментарии политического характера еще долго оставались самыми популярными.

Дефо продолжает упорно трудиться в сфере журналистики. Одновременно из-под его пера выходят и художественные произведения. Его замечательный роман «Жизнь и удивительные приключения Робинзона Крузо» вышел в свет в 1719 году. На волне ошеломительного успеха автор пишет «Дальнейшие приключения Робинзона Крузо» и, спустя год – еще одно продолжение. Романы прохладно были приняты публикой, и не приблизились по популярности и успеху к первой части.

Перу Даниэля Дефо принадлежит более 500 произведений разных жанров. Это романы «Радости и горести Моль Флендерс», «Счастливая куртизанка, или Роксана», «Жизнь, приключения и пиратские подвиги прославленного капитана Синглтона», а также труды «Морской торговый атлас», «Путешествие по всему острову Великобритания» и многие другие.

Наиболее значительные произведения

Лучшим воплощением литературного таланта Дефо стал роман «Робинзон Крузо». Автор написал его в возрасте 59 лет. Основанием для написания романа стало реальное происшествие 1704 года, когда моряк из Шотландии в одиночку провел на незнакомом острове 4 года.

Основной тезис, на котором базируется роман в том, чтобы показать человека разумным социальным существом. Поэтому автор строит жизнь своего героя по законам человеческой цивилизации. У Робинзона строгий ежедневный распорядок: утренняя молитва, затем добывание пищи и ее приготовление. Остальное время было занято изготовлением различных предметов, строительством или просто отдыхом.

Большой интерес вызывает и другой персонаж – слуга Робинзона Пятница. Спасенный Робинзоном, дикарь по рождению, он в благодарность обещает с преданностью служить новому хозяину. Его среда обитания – природа и он никогда не прикасался к цивилизации. На примере образа Пятницы Дефо показал влияние цивилизации на личность.

«Всеобщая история пиратства» – эту книгу можно назвать самой знаменитой в данном жанре. Она была издана под вымышленным именем капитана Чарльза Джонсона и ее по праву называют «библией пиратства». События, описанные в ней, послужили источником для многочисленных фильмов и романов.

«Дневник Чумного Года» автор написал на основе детских воспоминаний о страшном нашествии чумы. Будучи пятилетним мальчиком, он стал свидетелем многочисленных смертей своих соседей, друзей родителей и всех, кто не смог уберечься от эпидемии.

Последние годы

Последние годы жизни писателя были омрачены острой нуждой. Отчаявшись, он принимает решение обмануть своего издателя и пускается в бега. Через некоторое время издателю удалось вычислить местонахождение Дефо, и даже напасть на него со шпагой. Но писателю удалось увернуться.

Постоянные скитания привели его в отдаленный район Лондона, где он скончался в съемной квартире 24 апреля 1731 года. Похоронен он был квартирной хозяйкой на простом кладбище.

Известие о смерти писателя не всколыхнуло общество, в прессе появлялись некрологи, полные сарказма. Могила его, заросшая травой, была неухоженной, и лишь через 100 лет на ее месте воздвигли памятник великому писателю.

Хронологическая таблица (по датам)

Год (годы)	Событие
1660	Рождение писателя
1673	Поступление в лондонскую академию
1683	Открытие собственного магазина
1684	Вступление в брак
1685	Участие в мятеже против короля
1692	Банкротство и закрытие коммерческого предприятия
1701	Начало литературной карьеры
1704-1713	Работа в газете «Обозреватель»
1722	«Радости и горести Молль Флендерс»
1722	«История полковника Джека»
1722	«Дневник чумного года»
1724	Издается «Робинзон Крузо»
1724	«Всеобщая история пиратства»
1731	Год смерти Д. Дефо

Интересные факты

• роман о Робинзоне Крузо может побить рекорд по количеству экранизаций;
• все коммерческие начинания Дефо всегда оканчивались банкротством;
• собравшиеся на площади забрасывали Дефо цветами во время его гражданской казни;
• продолжения «Робинзона Крузо» не имели успеха у читателей;
• первым переводчиком романа о Робинзоне был Лев Толстой;
• некоторые называют Дефо основателем британской разведки;
• за свою литературную карьеру писатель пользовался 198 псевдонимами;
• после смерти писателя квартирная хозяйка распродала его вещи, чтобы компенсировать расходы на похороны

Увековечение памяти

В Лондоне на месте захоронения Д. Дефо установлен памятник.

Остров в Чили носит имя Робинзона Крузо.

В Шотландии и г. Тобольск установлены памятники Робинзону Крузо.

Ссылки

Памятники Робинзону Крузо

Остров Робинзона в Чили

«Чтобы помнили», страница о Д. Дефо с иллюстрациями

Место захоронения Д. Дефо

Ирина Зарицкая | Просмотров: 13.8k

Об авторе

Словари

Дефо́ Даниель (Defoe) (около 1660 — 1731), писатель, политический деятель. Зачинатель английского реалистического романа. Приключенческий роман «Робинзон Крузо» (1719), восславивший труд и волю к жизни, породил многочисленные литературные подражания (робинзонаду). В авантюрно-приключенческих романах «Капитан Сингльтон» (1720), «История полковника Жака» (1722), «Молль Флендерс» (1722) — бесстрастно-реалистическая картина жизни деклассированных элементов. В публицистике пропагандировал здравомыслие и практицизм, выступал в защиту веротерпимости и свободы слова.

ДЕФО Даниель — ДЕФО́ (Defoe) Даниель (ок. 1660-1731), английский писатель, политический деятель, зачинатель английского реалистического романа. В публицистике пропагандировал здравомыслие и практицизм, выступал в защиту веротерпимости и свободы слова. Авантюрно-приключенческие романы «Капитан Сингльтон» (1720), «История полковника Жака» (1722),«Молль Флендерс» (1722) дают бесстрастно-реалистическую картину жизни деклассированных элементов. Приключенческий роман «Робинзон Крузо» (1719), восславивший труд и волю к жизни, породил многие литературные подражания.

ДЕФО Даниель (Defoe, Daniel)

ДАНИЕЛЬ ДЕФО (гравюра 18 в.)

(1660-1731), английский писатель. Родился в Лондоне в 1600 в семье торговца сальными свечами и диссентера Джеймса Фо. Около 1703 Даниель переменил фамилию на Дефо. Учился в школе Дж.Фишера в Доркинге, затем в Академии Ч.Мортона в Стоук-Ньюингтоне, готовившей пасторов для пресвитерианской церкви. В 1681 начал сочинять религиозные стихи, но вскоре занялся коммерческой деятельностью. Некоторое время торговал в Испании, много ездил по Западной Европе. Известно, что (до 1685) на пути между Хариджем и Голландией он попал в плен к алжирским пиратам, но вскоре его якобы выкупили. В 1684 Дефо женился на Мэри Таффли, которая родила ему восьмерых детей. Жена принесла приданое в 3700 фунтов стерлингов, и некоторое время он мог считаться сравнительно состоятельным человеком, однако в 1692 и приданое жены, и его собственные сбережения поглотило банкротство, унесшее 17 тысяч фунтов стерлингов. От такого коммерческого провала, случившегося из-за того, что Дефо имел неосторожность подписаться под флотскими страховыми обязательствами на период войны с Францией, он так и не сумел оправиться. В 1701 Дефо написал стихотворение Чистокровный англичанин (The True-Born Englishman), высмеивавшее выдумки о расовом превосходстве, и король Вильгельм III счел это сочинение ценной услугой, но монарх через год умер и на Дефо посыпались нападки со всех сторон. Тори ставили ему в вину совет королю распустить профранцузский парламент, рьяные приверженцы высокой церкви были уязвлены насмешками в его едком сочинении Как окоротить инаковерующих (Shortest Way with the Dissenters, 1702), а судей городского управления Лондона, перед которыми он предстал по обвинению в политических прегрешениях, он восстановил против себя разоблачением их личных пороков. В конечном счете по приговору, оглашенному в июле 1703, он должен был трижды выстоять у позорного столба, заплатить огромный штраф и найти поручителей в своем примерном поведении в течение семи лет, причем до исполнения приговора ему надлежало оставаться в тюрьме. Хотя выставление Дефо у позорного столба превратилось в демонстрацию восторженной поддержки, репутация его пострадала и процветавшее дело по производству черепицы за время, пока хозяин находился в тюрьме, пришло в совершенное расстройство. Он мог бы остаться в заключении до конца дней, если бы не вмешательство спикера палаты общин Р.Харли, знавшего цену Дефо-журналисту. В ноябре 1703 Харли добился освобождения Дефо, а затем устроил его на государственную службу. Дефо стал редактировать «Ривью» («Review»), периодическое издание, выходившее с 1704 по 1713, чаще всего раз в три недели. Из всех политических сочинений Дефо его комментарии в «Ривью» известны лучше всего. С 1691 по 1730 почти непрерывным потоком выходили книги, памфлеты, стихи Дефо, звучали его выступления в поддержку правительства. В 1719, не прекращая активной журналистской работы, Дефо начинает заниматься прозой. Вслед за Жизнью и удивительными приключениями Робинзона Крузо (The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, 1719) выходят Записки кавалера (Memoires of a Cavalier, 1720), Капитан Синглтон (Captain Singleton, 1720), Удачи и несчастья Молль Флендерс (The Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders, 1722), Дневник чумного года (A Journal of the Plague Year, 1722), История капитана Джека (The History of Colonel Jack, 1722) и Роксана (Roxana, 1724). Им были написаны и такие важные труды, как Путешествие по всему острову Великобритания (A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724-1727), Всеобщая история пиратства (A General History of the Pirates, 1724-1728), Совершенный английский торговец (The Complete English Tradesman, 1725-1727) и Морской торговый атлас (Atlas Maritimus et Commercialis, 1728). Умер Дефо в Лондоне 26 апреля 1731. Роман Робинзон Крузо впервые вышел в свет в 1719, а затем появились два его продолжения. В Жизни и удивительных приключениях (лишь эта часть трилогии снискала непреходящий успех у читателей) Крузо рассказывает о том, как он убежал из дому, чтобы стать моряком, как попал в плен к берберийским пиратам, как его корабль потерпел крушение и его выбросило на необитаемый остров близ побережья Венесуэлы, где он спас дикаря Пятницу от людоедов. В Дальнейших приключениях (Farther Adventures, 1719) Крузо возвращается на свой остров и совершает путешествие вокруг Африки и Азии. Серьезные размышления (Serious Reflections, 1720) написаны ради ознакомления публики с раздумьями Крузо, которым он предавался в одиночестве. Описание жизни Крузо на необитаемом острове, уникальное для всей мировой художественной литературы, частично основывалось на случае с А.Селкирком, высаженным на один из необитаемых островов архипелага Хуан-Фернандес (1704-1709), частично — на рассказах о пленении Р.Нокса на Цейлоне (1660-1680), однако прежде всего это рассказ о борьбе человека с природой. Крузо по крупинке складывает цивилизацию из подручного материала. Роман Молль Флендерс впервые был опубликован в 1722. Молль рассказывает о своей жизни начиная с рождения в Ньюгейтской тюрьме и повествуя затем о том, как она пошла в служанки в Колчестере, как ее соблазнили, как она пять раз побывала замужем, как она была карманной воровкой и проституткой, как ей удалось спастись от виселицы, согласившись на ссылку в Виргинию, и о своем последнем муже, с которым она в счастливом достатке доживает свою жизнь в Англии. Молль Флендерс сообщает читателю жизненную правду, не подслащенную сентиментальностью, причем изложение столь подробно, что книгу цитировали как документальный источник.

Дефо Д. Жизнь и удивительные приключения Робинзона Крузо, моряка из Йорка. М., 1955 Дефо Д. Счастливая куртизанка, или Роксана. М., 1974 Дефо Д. Жизнь и пиратские приключения славного капитана Синглтона; Молль Флендерс. М., 1990 Урнов Д.М. Дефо. М., 1990 Дефо Д. Жизнь и пиратские приключения славного капитана Синглтона; История полковника Джека. Ярославль, 1993

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Помогите, пожалуйста, с транслитерацией и склонением иностранного имени (итал. Daniele Bennati).

1. Какой из 12 следующих вариантов написания верный (более точный, близкий к итальянскому оригиналу, по звучанию)? : ДЭниЭлЕ / ДЭниЕлЕ / ДЭниЭлЬ / ДЭниЕлЬ / ДЭниЭл / ДЭниЕл / ДАниЭлЕ / ДАниЕлЕ / ДАниЭлЬ / ДАниЕлЬ / ДАниЭл / ДАниЕл Беннати [именительный падеж]

2. Склоняется ли это имя и какие буквы должны стоять вместо звёздочек в слудующем предложении? : Вышла замуж за Д*ни*л* Бенатти. [винительный падеж]

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

По правилам передачи итальянских имен и названий: Даниеле Беннати. См. в «Письмовнике»: Как писать итальянские имена и названия.

В русском языке не склоняются имена и фамилии, оканчивающиеся на гласные -е, -и. Правильно: вышла замуж за Даниеле Беннати.

Здравствуйте, помогите пожалуйста просклонять имена Даниель Дефо и Олег Феликсович Мыло.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Фамилии Дефо и Мыло не склоняются. Со склонением имен, полагаем, трудностей возникнуть не должно.

Даниэль дефо ударение в фамилии

Словари

Дефо́ Даниель (Defoe) (около 1660 — 1731), писатель, политический деятель. Зачинатель английского реалистического романа. Приключенческий роман «Робинзон Крузо» (1719), восславивший труд и волю к жизни, породил многочисленные литературные подражания (робинзонаду). В авантюрно-приключенческих романах «Капитан Сингльтон» (1720), «История полковника Жака» (1722), «Молль Флендерс» (1722) — бесстрастно-реалистическая картина жизни деклассированных элементов. В публицистике пропагандировал здравомыслие и практицизм, выступал в защиту веротерпимости и свободы слова.

ДЕФО Даниель — ДЕФО́ (Defoe) Даниель (ок. 1660-1731), английский писатель, политический деятель, зачинатель английского реалистического романа. В публицистике пропагандировал здравомыслие и практицизм, выступал в защиту веротерпимости и свободы слова. Авантюрно-приключенческие романы «Капитан Сингльтон» (1720), «История полковника Жака» (1722),«Молль Флендерс» (1722) дают бесстрастно-реалистическую картину жизни деклассированных элементов. Приключенческий роман «Робинзон Крузо» (1719), восславивший труд и волю к жизни, породил многие литературные подражания.

ДЕФО Даниель (Defoe, Daniel)

ДАНИЕЛЬ ДЕФО (гравюра 18 в.)

(1660-1731), английский писатель. Родился в Лондоне в 1600 в семье торговца сальными свечами и диссентера Джеймса Фо. Около 1703 Даниель переменил фамилию на Дефо. Учился в школе Дж.Фишера в Доркинге, затем в Академии Ч.Мортона в Стоук-Ньюингтоне, готовившей пасторов для пресвитерианской церкви. В 1681 начал сочинять религиозные стихи, но вскоре занялся коммерческой деятельностью. Некоторое время торговал в Испании, много ездил по Западной Европе. Известно, что (до 1685) на пути между Хариджем и Голландией он попал в плен к алжирским пиратам, но вскоре его якобы выкупили. В 1684 Дефо женился на Мэри Таффли, которая родила ему восьмерых детей. Жена принесла приданое в 3700 фунтов стерлингов, и некоторое время он мог считаться сравнительно состоятельным человеком, однако в 1692 и приданое жены, и его собственные сбережения поглотило банкротство, унесшее 17 тысяч фунтов стерлингов. От такого коммерческого провала, случившегося из-за того, что Дефо имел неосторожность подписаться под флотскими страховыми обязательствами на период войны с Францией, он так и не сумел оправиться. В 1701 Дефо написал стихотворение Чистокровный англичанин (The True-Born Englishman), высмеивавшее выдумки о расовом превосходстве, и король Вильгельм III счел это сочинение ценной услугой, но монарх через год умер и на Дефо посыпались нападки со всех сторон. Тори ставили ему в вину совет королю распустить профранцузский парламент, рьяные приверженцы высокой церкви были уязвлены насмешками в его едком сочинении Как окоротить инаковерующих (Shortest Way with the Dissenters, 1702), а судей городского управления Лондона, перед которыми он предстал по обвинению в политических прегрешениях, он восстановил против себя разоблачением их личных пороков. В конечном счете по приговору, оглашенному в июле 1703, он должен был трижды выстоять у позорного столба, заплатить огромный штраф и найти поручителей в своем примерном поведении в течение семи лет, причем до исполнения приговора ему надлежало оставаться в тюрьме. Хотя выставление Дефо у позорного столба превратилось в демонстрацию восторженной поддержки, репутация его пострадала и процветавшее дело по производству черепицы за время, пока хозяин находился в тюрьме, пришло в совершенное расстройство. Он мог бы остаться в заключении до конца дней, если бы не вмешательство спикера палаты общин Р.Харли, знавшего цену Дефо-журналисту. В ноябре 1703 Харли добился освобождения Дефо, а затем устроил его на государственную службу. Дефо стал редактировать «Ривью» («Review»), периодическое издание, выходившее с 1704 по 1713, чаще всего раз в три недели. Из всех политических сочинений Дефо его комментарии в «Ривью» известны лучше всего. С 1691 по 1730 почти непрерывным потоком выходили книги, памфлеты, стихи Дефо, звучали его выступления в поддержку правительства. В 1719, не прекращая активной журналистской работы, Дефо начинает заниматься прозой. Вслед за Жизнью и удивительными приключениями Робинзона Крузо (The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe, 1719) выходят Записки кавалера (Memoires of a Cavalier, 1720), Капитан Синглтон (Captain Singleton, 1720), Удачи и несчастья Молль Флендерс (The Fortunes and Misfortunes of Moll Flanders, 1722), Дневник чумного года (A Journal of the Plague Year, 1722), История капитана Джека (The History of Colonel Jack, 1722) и Роксана (Roxana, 1724). Им были написаны и такие важные труды, как Путешествие по всему острову Великобритания (A Tour Through the Whole Island of Great Britain, 1724-1727), Всеобщая история пиратства (A General History of the Pirates, 1724-1728), Совершенный английский торговец (The Complete English Tradesman, 1725-1727) и Морской торговый атлас (Atlas Maritimus et Commercialis, 1728). Умер Дефо в Лондоне 26 апреля 1731. Роман Робинзон Крузо впервые вышел в свет в 1719, а затем появились два его продолжения. В Жизни и удивительных приключениях (лишь эта часть трилогии снискала непреходящий успех у читателей) Крузо рассказывает о том, как он убежал из дому, чтобы стать моряком, как попал в плен к берберийским пиратам, как его корабль потерпел крушение и его выбросило на необитаемый остров близ побережья Венесуэлы, где он спас дикаря Пятницу от людоедов. В Дальнейших приключениях (Farther Adventures, 1719) Крузо возвращается на свой остров и совершает путешествие вокруг Африки и Азии. Серьезные размышления (Serious Reflections, 1720) написаны ради ознакомления публики с раздумьями Крузо, которым он предавался в одиночестве. Описание жизни Крузо на необитаемом острове, уникальное для всей мировой художественной литературы, частично основывалось на случае с А.Селкирком, высаженным на один из необитаемых островов архипелага Хуан-Фернандес (1704-1709), частично — на рассказах о пленении Р.Нокса на Цейлоне (1660-1680), однако прежде всего это рассказ о борьбе человека с природой. Крузо по крупинке складывает цивилизацию из подручного материала. Роман Молль Флендерс впервые был опубликован в 1722. Молль рассказывает о своей жизни начиная с рождения в Ньюгейтской тюрьме и повествуя затем о том, как она пошла в служанки в Колчестере, как ее соблазнили, как она пять раз побывала замужем, как она была карманной воровкой и проституткой, как ей удалось спастись от виселицы, согласившись на ссылку в Виргинию, и о своем последнем муже, с которым она в счастливом достатке доживает свою жизнь в Англии. Молль Флендерс сообщает читателю жизненную правду, не подслащенную сентиментальностью, причем изложение столь подробно, что книгу цитировали как документальный источник.

Дефо Д. Жизнь и удивительные приключения Робинзона Крузо, моряка из Йорка. М., 1955 Дефо Д. Счастливая куртизанка, или Роксана. М., 1974 Дефо Д. Жизнь и пиратские приключения славного капитана Синглтона; Молль Флендерс. М., 1990 Урнов Д.М. Дефо. М., 1990 Дефо Д. Жизнь и пиратские приключения славного капитана Синглтона; История полковника Джека. Ярославль, 1993

Сайт о псевдонимах и их носителях.

Одно имя дают родители. Совсем другое дает жизнь. Но подлинное имя мы даем себе сами. Но не у всех хватает духу признаться в подлинном имени. Даже себе.

Псевдоним — Даниель Дефо

Даниель Дефо. Настоящее имя – Даниель Фо. Родился около 1660-1661, умер 26 (возможно 24-го) апреля 1731 в Лондоне. Английский писатель и публицист, наиболее известен как автор «Робинзона Крузо».

Де Фо – это фамилия предков Даниэля – фламандцев, которые перебрались в Англию в конце XVI века. Через несколько поколений утратилась приставка Де, родовая фамилия преобразовалась на английский манер, и бывшие Дефо стали называться просто Фо.

В 1695 году начинающий писатель возвращает её на место. Причиной стало то, что Даниэль решает скрыться под другим именем, потому что ему приходилось скрываться от властей, поскольку восстание герцога Монмаута против Якова II, в котором он участвовал, потерпело поражение. И тогда из Даниэля Фо он становится Даниэлем Дефо. Хотя, эта фамилия не совсем чужая, но все не та, что принадлежит его родителям.

Дефо считают одним из первых сторонников романа как жанра. Он помог популяризовать этот жанр в Великобритании, а некоторые считают его одним из основателей английского романа. Дефо плодовитый и разнообразный писатель, он написал более 500 книг, памфлетов и журналов на разные темы (политика, экономика, религия, брак, психология, сверхъестественное и др.). Он был также основоположником экономического журнализма. В публицистике пропагандировал буржуазное здравомыслие, выступал в защиту веротерпимости и свободы слова.

Родился в семье мясоторговца пресвитерианца Джеймса Фо (1630—1712), готовился в пасторы, но от церковной карьеры вынужден был отказаться. Окончив Ньюингтонскую академию, где изучал греческий и латинский языки и классическую литературу, стал приказчиком у оптового чулочного торговца. По торговым делам часто бывал в Испании и Франции, где ознакомился с жизнью Европы и совершенствовался в языках.

Одно время был владельцем чулочного производства, затем управляющим, а потом и владельцем большого кирпично-черепичного завода, но разорился. Он был также одним из самых активных политиков своего времени, основателем и руководителем британской разведки и контрразведки в 1709-1713 годах, оказывал большое влияние на короля и правительство.

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Всего найдено: 2

Помогите, пожалуйста, с транслитерацией и склонением иностранного имени (итал. Daniele Bennati).

1. Какой из 12 следующих вариантов написания верный (более точный, близкий к итальянскому оригиналу, по звучанию)? : ДЭниЭлЕ / ДЭниЕлЕ / ДЭниЭлЬ / ДЭниЕлЬ / ДЭниЭл / ДЭниЕл / ДАниЭлЕ / ДАниЕлЕ / ДАниЭлЬ / ДАниЕлЬ / ДАниЭл / ДАниЕл Беннати [именительный падеж]

2. Склоняется ли это имя и какие буквы должны стоять вместо звёздочек в слудующем предложении? : Вышла замуж за Д*ни*л* Бенатти. [винительный падеж]

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

По правилам передачи итальянских имен и названий: Даниеле Беннати. См. в «Письмовнике»: Как писать итальянские имена и названия.

В русском языке не склоняются имена и фамилии, оканчивающиеся на гласные -е, -и. Правильно: вышла замуж за Даниеле Беннати.

Здравствуйте, помогите пожалуйста просклонять имена Даниель Дефо и Олег Феликсович Мыло.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Фамилии Дефо и Мыло не склоняются. Со склонением имен, полагаем, трудностей возникнуть не должно.

(перенаправлено с «Дефо, Даниэль»)

Текущая версия страницы пока не проверялась опытными участниками и может значительно отличаться от версии, проверенной 10 июля 2015;
проверки требуют 42 правки.

В Википедии есть статьи о других людях с фамилией Дефо.

Даниель Дефо
англ. Daniel Defoe
Имя при рождении:	англ. Daniel Foe
Дата рождения:	ок. 1660[1]
Место рождения:	Криплгейт[d], Лондон, Англия[1]
Дата смерти:	24 апреля 1731[1][2]
Место смерти:	Мурфилдс[d], Лондон, Англия[1]
Гражданство (подданство):	Королевство Англия  Королевство Великобритания
Род деятельности:	прозаик
Направление:	неизвестно
Язык произведений:	английский язык[3]
Произведения в Викитеке
Файлы на Викискладе

Дание́ль Дефо́ (англ. Daniel Defoe); имя при рождении Daniel Foe; около 1660, район Криплгейт, Лондон — 24 апреля 1731, район Сприндфел , Лондон) — английский писатель и публицист, известен главным образом как автор «Робинзона Крузо». Дефо считают одним из первых сторонников романа как жанра. Он помог популяризовать этот жанр в Великобритании, а некоторые считают его одним из основателей английского романа. Дефо — плодотворный и разносторонний писатель, он написал более 500 книг, памфлетов и журналов на разные темы (политика, экономика, криминал, религия, брак, психология, сверхъестественное и др.). Он был также основоположником экономической журналистики. В публицистике пропагандировал буржуазное здравомыслие, выступал в защиту веротерпимости и свободы слова. Основатель английской разведки.

В продолжении романа о Робинзоне Крузо, которое недостаточно известно русскоязычному читателю, Дефо описал его приключения в Великой Тартарии и государствах, расположенных на её землях, — Китайской и Российской империи (Московии), а также быт и нравы населяющих её народов — китайцев, татар и русских (сибирских) казаков.

Биография[править | править вики-текст]

Родился в семье мясоторговца пресвитерианца Джеймса Фо (1630—1712), получил духовное образование и готовился в пасторы, но от церковной карьеры вынужден был отказаться. Занимался коммерческой деятельностью. В 1681 году начал писать стихи на религиозные темы.

Принимал участие в восстании герцога Монмута против Якова II Стюарта и сражении при Седжмуре 6 июля 1685 года, проигранном мятежниками.

Окончив Ньюингтонскую академию, где изучал греческий и латинский языки и классическую литературу, стал приказчиком у оптового чулочного торговца. По торговым делам часто бывал в Испании, Португалии и Франции, где ознакомился с жизнью Европы и совершенствовался в языках.

Впоследствии сам был одно время владельцем чулочного производства и затем сначала управляющим, а потом и владельцем большого кирпично-черепичного завода, но разорился. В общем Дефо был предприниматель-делец с авантюристической жилкой — тип, распространённый в ту эпоху. Он был также одним из самых активных политиков своего времени. Талантливый публицист, памфлетист и издатель, он, не занимая официально никакой государственной должности, был руководителем разведслужб Британии, одно время оказывал большое влияние на короля и правительство.

Творчество[править | править вики-текст]

В 1697 году написал своё первое литературное произведение «Опыт о проектах». В 1701 году написал сатирическое произведение «Чистокровный англичанин» («The True-Born Englishman»), высмеивающее ксенофобию. За памфлет «Кратчайший путь расправы с диссентерами» («Shortest Way with the Dissenters») в 1703 году был приговорён к позорному столбу и тюремному заключению^[4]

Романы[править | править вики-текст]

• «Робинзон Крузо» (Robinson Crusoe) — 1719
• «Дальнейшие приключения Робинзона Крузо» (The Further Adventures of Robinson Crusoe) — 1719
• «Жизнь и пиратские приключения славного капитана Сингльтона» (Captain Singleton) — 1720
• «Memoirs of a Cavalier» (Мемуары кавалера) — 1720
• «Дневник чумного года» (A Journal of the Plague Year) — 1722
• «Радости и горести знаменитой Молль Флендерс» (Moll Flanders) — 1722
• «Счастливая куртизанка, или Роксана» (Roxana: The Fortunate Mistress) — 1724
• «The King of Pirates» (Король пиратов)
• «История полковника Джека» (Colonel Jack)

Другое в прозе[править | править вики-текст]

• «Правдивый рассказ о явлении призрака некой миссис Вил на следующий день после смерти некоей миссис Баргрэйв в Кентербери 8 сентября 1705 года» (A True Relation of the Apparition of One Mrs. Veal The Next day after Her Death to One Mrs. Bargrave at Canterbury The 8th of September 1705) — 1706
• «The Consolidator or, Memoirs of Sundry Transactions from the World in the Moon» (Консолидатор, или воспоминания приходной операции от света Луны) — 1705
• «Atlantis Major» (Основной Атлантис) — 1711
• «A Tour Thro’ The Whole Island of Great Britain, Divided into Circuits or Journies» (Беспересадочный тур по Великобритании) — 1724—1727
• «The Family Instructor» (Семья Инструктора)
• «Всеобщая история пиратства» (The Pirate Gow) — 1724
• «The Storm» (Шторм)
• «A New Voyage round the World» (Новое кругосветное путешествие) — 1725
• «История дьявола» (The Political History of the Devil) — 1726
• «System of Magic» (Система магии) — 1726
• «The History Of The Remarkable Life of John Sheppard» (История замечательной жизни Джона Шеппарда) — 1724
• «A Narrative Of All The Robberies, Escapes, &c. of John Sheppard» (Повествование Всех Ограблений, Побегов) — 1724
• «The Pirate Gow» (Пират Гоу) — 1725
• «A Friendly Epistle by way of reproof from one of the people called Quakers, to T. B., a dealer in many words» (Дружественное послание путём упрек от одного из людей, называемых Квакерами) — 1715

Эссе[править | править вики-текст]

• «Conjugal Lewdness» (Супружеский разврат)
• «Serious Reflections of Robinson Crusoe» (Серьезные размышления Робинзона Крузо) — 1720
• «The Complete English Tradesman» (Полный английский торговец)
• «An Essay Upon Projects» (Сочинение по проектам)
• «An Essay Upon Literature» (Сочинение по литературе) — 1726
• «Mere Nature Delineated» (Простое разграничение природы) — 1726
• «A Plan of English Commerce» (План английской торговли) — 1728
• «Essay on the Reality of Apparitions» (Эссе на реальности явлений) — 1727

Поэмы[править | править вики-текст]

• «The True-Born Englishman» (Чистокровный Англичанин) — 1701
• «Hymn to the Pillory» (Гимн позорному столбу) — 1703

Прочее[править | править вики-текст]

• Moubray House (Дом Маубрэй)

Издание Дефо в России[править | править вики-текст]

• «Abbey Classics» series. Переводы и издания в России: Робинзон Крузо, в двух частях, перев. с франц., СПб., 1843;
• Робинзон Крузо, в двух тт. 200 рисунков Гранвилля, гравированных на камне и отпечатанных в два тона, новый перев. с франц., М., 1870;
• Робинзон Крузо, перев. П. Кончаловского, М., 1888;
• перев. М. Шишмаревой и З. Журавской, СПб., 1902;
• перев. Л. Мурахиной, изд. Сытина, М., 1904, изд. 4-е, 1911 и мн. др.
• Радости и горе знаменитой Молл Флэндерс, перев. П. Кончаловского, «Русское богатство», 1896 ЇЇ 1—4, отд. изд., М., 1903, со ст. В. Лесевича, Г. Геттнера, Тэна, П. С. Когана, В. М. Фриче;
• Всеобщ. история литературы, под ред. Корша и Кирпичникова;
• Каменский А. Даниель Дефо, его жизнь и деятельность, СПб., 1892 (в биографич. серии Павленкова);
• Залшупин А., Англ. публицист XVII в., «Наблюдатель», 1892, Ї 6;
• Лесевич В., Даниель Дефо как человек, писатель и общественный деятель, «Русск. богатство», 1893, ЇЇ 5, 7, 8;
• Его же, По поводу «Молл Флэндерс» Д. Дефо, «Русск. богатство», 1896, Ї 1;
• Алферов А. и др., «Десять чтений по литературе», М., 1895, изд. 2-е, М., 1903. Биографии Д. (англ.): Chambers, 1786; Lee, 1869; Morley H., 1889; Wright, 1894; Whitten, 1900.
• Чарлз Джонсон (Даниель Дефо). Всеобщая история пиратов / Перевод с английского, предисловие, примечания, приложения И. С. Мальского // День и ночь. — 1999. — № 3. (В 2014 вышла под названием «Всеобщая история пиратства», СПб.: Азбука, Азбука-Аттикус)

Другие материалы, связанные с Дефо[править | править вики-текст]

• Lamb, Hazlitt, Forster, Leslie Stephen, Minto, Masefield, W. P. Trent (Cambridge History of English Literature). На франц. яз.: Dottin, 3 vv., 1924. На немец. яз.: Horten F., Studien über die Sprache Defoe’s, Bonnn, 1914;
• Schmidt R., Der Volkswille als realer Faktor des Verfassungslebens und D. Defoe, 1925;
• Dibelius, Der englische Roman. На англ. яз.: Secord A. W., Studies in the narrative method of Defoe, 1924. Разыскания в области текста — Lannert G. L., 1910. Об источниках «Робинзона Крузо»: Nicholson W., 1919; Lucius L. Hubbard, 1921;
• Lloyd’s Catalogue of edition of Robinson Crusoe and other books by and ref. to Defoe, L., 1915.
• G. H. Moynadier, 16 vv. 1903;
• Boston, Constable’s sumptuous reprints, 1924—1925;

См. также[править | править вики-текст]

	Дефо, Даниель в Викицитатнике?
	Дефо, Даниель в Викитеке?
	Дефо, Даниель на Викискладе?

• Чарльз Джонсон

Примечания[править | править вики-текст]

Ссылки[править | править вики-текст]

• Луков Вл. А. Дефо Даниель. Электронная энциклопедия «Мир Шекспира» (2009). Проверено 13 октября 2011. Архивировано из первоисточника 4 февраля 2012.
• Русская топонимика в романах Дефо