Как пишется ганеша на санскрите

Индуистский бог новых начинаний, успеха и мудрости

Ганеша
  • Бог новых начинаний, успеха и мудрости
  • Устранитель препятствий
Одетый в оранжевое дхоти, человек с головой слона сидит на большом лотосе. Его тело красного цвета, он носит различные золотые ожерелья и браслеты и змею на шее. На трех концах его короны были закреплены распускающиеся лотосы. Он держит в своих двух правых руках четки (нижняя рука) и чашу, наполненную тремя модаками (круглыми желтыми конфетами), четвертая модака, удерживаемая изогнутым стволом, вот-вот должна быть отведена. В своих двух левых руках он держит лотос в верхней руке и топор в нижней, его рукоять опирается на плечо. Басоли миниатюра, ок. 1730. Национальный музей, Нью-Дели.
Принадлежность Дева, Брахман (Ганапатья ), Сагуна Брахман (Панчайатана пуджа )
Обитель • Гора Кайлас (с родителями Шива и Парвати ),. • Ганешлока
Мантра Ом Шри Ганешайа Намах. Ом Ган Ганапатайе Намах
Оружие Парашу (топор), паша (петля), анкуша (слоновий стог)
Символы Свастика, Om, Модак
Маунт Мышь
Тексты Ганеша Пурана, Мудгала Пурана, Ганапати Атхарваширса
Пол Мужской
Фестивали Ганеш Чатуртхи
Личная информация
Родители
  • Шива (отец)
  • Парвати (мать)
Братья и сестры Картикея и Ашокасундари
Супруги
  • Риддхи (Процветание)
  • Сиддхи (Достижение)
  • Буддхи (Разум)
Дети Шубха, Лабха, Сантоши Мата

Ганеша (санскрит : गणेश, IAST : Gaeśa;), или Ганеш, также известный как Ганапати и Винаяка — одно из самых известных и наиболее почитаемых божеств в индуистском пантеоне. Его изображение можно найти по всей территории Индии, Непала, Шри-Ланки, Таиланда, Бали (Индонезия) и Бангладеш и в странах с большим этническим индийским населением, включая Фиджи, Маврикий и Тринидад и Тобаго. индуистские конфессии поклоняются ему независимо от принадлежности. Преданность Ганеши широко распространена и распространяется на джайнов и буддистов.

Хотя он известен по многим характеристикам, голова слона Ганеши позволяет легко его идентифицировать. Ганеша широко почитается как устранитель препятствий, покровитель искусств и наук и дэва интеллекта и мудрости. Его как бога начала чтят в начале обрядов и церемоний. Ганеша также упоминается как покровитель писем и обучения во время письменных сессий. В нескольких текстах рассказывается мифологические анекдоты, связанные с его рождением и подвигами.

Ганеша мог появиться как божество уже в I веке до н.э., но, безусловно, в IV и V веках нашей эры, в период периода Гупта, хотя он унаследовал черты от Ведические и доведические предшественники. Индийская мифология идентифицирует его как восстановленного сына Парвати и Шивы традиции шиваизма, но он является пан-индуистским богом, встречающимся в различных его традициях. В традиции индуизма Ганапатья Ганеша является верховным божеством. Основные тексты о Ганеше включают Ганеша-пурану, Мудгала-пурану и Ганапати Атхарваширса. Брахма Пурана и Брахманда Пурана — два других энциклопедических текста пуранического жанра, которые имеют дело с Ганешей.

Содержание

  • 1 Этимология и другие названия
  • 2 Иконография
    • 2.1 Общие атрибуты
    • 2.2 Ваханас
  • 3 Особенности
    • 3.1 Устранение препятствий
    • 3.2 Буддхи (интеллект)
    • 3,3 Ом
    • 3,4 Первая чакра
  • 4 Семья и супруги
  • 5 Поклонение и праздники
    • 5.1 Ганеша Чатуртхи
    • 5.2 Храмы
  • 6 Возвышение
    • 6.1 Первое появление
    • 6.2 Возможные влияния
    • 6.3 Ведическая и эпическая литература
    • 6.4 Пуранический период
    • 6.5 Священные Писания
  • 7 За пределами Индии и индуизм
  • 8 Пояснительные примечания
  • 9 Цитаты
  • 10 Общие ссылки
  • 11 Внешние ссылки

Этимология и другие имена

Ганеша, Мадхья-Прадеш, ок. 750, Индия

Ганеше приписывают множество других титулов и эпитетов, включая Ганапати (Ганпати) и Вигнешвара. Индусский титул уважения Шри (Санскрит : श्री; IAST : Шри; также пишется Шри или Шри) часто добавляется перед его именем.

Имя Ганеша — это санскритское соединение, объединяющее слова гана (gaa), означающее «группа, множество или категориальная система», и иша (īśa), означающее «господин или господин». ‘. Слово gaa, связанное с Ганешей, часто используется для обозначения gaṇas, отряда полубожественных существ, составляющих часть свиты Шивы, отца Ганеши. Этот термин в более общем смысле означает категорию, класс, сообщество, ассоциацию или корпорацию. Некоторые комментаторы интерпретируют имя «Владыка Ганов» как означающее «Владыка воинств» или «Владыка сотворенных категорий», таких как элементы. Ганапати (गणपति; gaapati), синоним Ганеши, представляет собой соединение, состоящее из gaṇa, что означает «группа», и пати, что означает «правитель» или «господин». Хотя самое раннее упоминание слова Ганапати встречается в гимне 2.23.1 2-го тысячелетия до нашей эры Ригведа, однако сомнительно, что ведический термин относился именно к Ганеше. Амаракоша, ранний санскритский лексикон, перечисляет восемь синонимов Ганеши: Винаяка, Vighnarāja (эквивалент Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (тот, у которого две матери), Gaādhipa (эквивалент Ganapati и Ganesha), Ekadanta (один у которого один бивень), Херамба, Ламбодара (тот, у кого горшок на животе, или, буквально, тот, у кого свисающий живот) и Гаджанана (гаджанана); с лицом слона.

Винаяка (विनायक; vināyaka) или Бинаяка — распространенное имя Ганеши, которое встречается в Пуранах и буддийских тантрах. Это имя отражено в названии восьми знаменитых храмов Ганеши в Махараштре, известных как Аштавинаяк (Маратхи : अष्टविनायक, анавинаяка). Имена Вигнеша (विघ्नेश; vighneśa) и Vighneshvara (विघ्नेश्वर; vighneśvara) (Властелин препятствий) относятся к его основной функции в индуизме как хозяина и устранителя препятствий (vighna).

Известное имя Ганеши в тамильский язык — это Пиллаи (Тамильский : பிள்ளை) или Пиллайяр (பிள்ளையார்). А.К. Нараин различает эти термины, говоря, что pillai означает «ребенок», а pillaiyar означает «благородный ребенок». Он добавляет, что слова pallu, pella и pell в дравидийской языковой семье означают «зуб или бивень», а также «зуб или бивень слона». Анита Райна Тхапан отмечает, что коренное слово pille в имени Pillaiyar могло первоначально означать «детеныш слона», потому что пали слово pillaka означает «молодой слон». 249>

В бирманском языке Ганеша известен как Маха Пейнне (မဟာ ပိန် နဲ, произносится ), происходит от пали Маха Винаяка (မဟာ ဝိ နာယက). Широко распространенное имя Ганеши в Таиланде — Пхра Пхиканет. Самые ранние изображения и упоминания имен Ганеши как главного божества в современной Индонезии, Таиланде, Камбодже и Вьетнаме относятся к VII и VIII векам, и они отражают индийские образцы V века или ранее. В Шри-Ланке буддийских областях Сингхалы он известен как Гана девийо и почитается вместе с Буддой, Вишну, Сканда и другими.

Иконография

Статуя Ганеши 13-го века, Хойсала стиль, Карнатака

Ганеша — популярная фигура в индийском искусстве. В отличие от некоторых божеств, изображения Ганеши демонстрируют широкие вариации и различные узоры, меняющиеся с течением времени. Его могут изображать стоящим, танцующим, героически действующим против демонов, играющим со своей семьей в детстве, сидящим на возвышении или участвующим в ряде современных ситуаций.

К VI веку изображения Ганеши были распространены во многих частях Индии. Изображенная статуя 13-го века типична для скульптур Ганеши 900–1200 годов, после того как Ганеша утвердился в качестве независимого божества со своей собственной сектой. В этом примере представлены некоторые общие иконографические элементы Ганеши. Практически идентичная статуя была датирована между 973–1200 годами Полем Мартином-Дубостом, а другая подобная статуя датируется ок. XII век Пратападитья Пал. У Ганеши голова слона и большой живот. У этой статуи четыре руки, что характерно для изображений Ганеши. В правой нижней руке он держит свой сломанный бивень, а в левой нижней руке держит лакомство, которое он пробует хоботом. Мотив, в котором Ганеша резко повернул хобот влево, чтобы отведать сладкое в левой нижней руке, является особенно архаичной чертой. Более примитивная статуя этой общей формы в одной из пещер Эллора датируется VII веком. Детали других рук на изображенной статуе трудно различить. В стандартной конфигурации Ганеша обычно держит топор или бодр в одном плече и пашу (петлю ) в другом. плечо. В редких случаях он может быть изображен с человеческой головой.

Влияние этого старого созвездия иконографических элементов все еще можно увидеть в современных изображениях Ганеши. В одной современной форме единственным отличием от этих старых элементов является то, что правая нижняя рука не держит сломанный бивень, а обращена к зрителю в жесте защиты или бесстрашия (Абхая мудра ). Такое же сочетание четырех рук и атрибутов встречается в статуях танцующего Ганеши, что является очень популярной темой.

Общие атрибуты

Типичная четырехрукая форма. Миниатюра школы Нурпура (около 1810 г.)

Ганеша изображался с головой слона с первых этапов его появления в индийском искусстве. Пуранические мифы дают множество объяснений тому, как он получил свою слоновью голову. Одна из его популярных форм, Херамба-Ганапати, имеет пять голов слона, и известны другие, менее распространенные вариации количества голов. Хотя в некоторых текстах говорится, что Ганеша родился с головой слона, в большинстве историй он приобретает голову позже. Наиболее часто встречающийся мотив в этих историях — то, что Ганеша был создан Парвати с использованием глины, чтобы защитить ее, и Шива обезглавил его, когда Ганеша встал между Шивой и Парвати. Затем Шива заменил оригинальную голову Ганеши головой слона. Детали битвы и откуда взялась новая голова, варьируются от источника к источнику. Другая история гласит, что Ганеша был создан непосредственно смехом Шивы. Поскольку Шива считал Ганешу слишком привлекательным, он дал ему голову слона и выступающий живот.

Самое раннее имя Ганеши было Экаданта (Один клыкастый), имея в виду его единственный бивень, а другой был сломан. Некоторые из самых ранних изображений Ганеши показывают, что он держит сломанный бивень. Важность этой отличительной черты отражена в Мудгала Пуране, в котором говорится, что имя второго воплощения Ганеши — Экаданта. Выступающий живот Ганеши является отличительным признаком его самой ранней скульптуры, которая относится к периоду Гупта (4-6 вв.). Эта особенность настолько важна, что, согласно Мудгала Пуране, два разных воплощения Ганеши используют имена, основанные на ней: Ламбодара (Горшок, или, буквально, Висячий живот) и Маходара (Большой живот). Оба имени являются санскритскими соединениями, описывающими его живот (IAST: удара). Брахманда-пурана говорит, что Ганеша носит имя Ламбодара, потому что все вселенные (т.е. космические яйца ; IAST: брахманы) прошлого, настоящего и будущего присутствуют в нем. Количество рук Ганеши варьируется; его самые известные формы имеют от двух до шестнадцати рук. Многие изображения Ганеши имеют четыре руки, которые упоминаются в пуранических источниках и систематизированы как стандартная форма в некоторых иконографических текстах. Его самые ранние изображения имели две руки. Формы с 14 и 20 руками появились в Центральной Индии в IX и X веках. Змей — общая черта в иконографии Ганеши и появляется во многих формах. Согласно Ганеша Пуране, Ганеша обвил змея Васуки вокруг своей шеи. Другие изображения змей включают использование в качестве священной нити (IAST: yajñyopavīta), обернутой вокруг живота в виде пояса, удерживаемого в руке, свернутого на лодыжках или в качестве трона. На лбу Ганеши может быть третий глаз или сектантский знак (IAST: тилака ), состоящий из трех горизонтальных линий. Ганеша Пурана предписывает знак тилаки, а также полумесяц на лбу. Особая форма Ганеши, называемая Бхалачандра (IAST: bhālacandra; «Луна на лбу»), включает этот иконографический элемент. Ганеша часто описывается как красный цвет. Определенные цвета связаны с определенными формами. Многие примеры цветовых ассоциаций с конкретными формами медитации прописаны в Шритаттванидхи, трактате по индуистской иконографии. Например, белый цвет ассоциируется с его представлениями как Херамба-Ганапати и Рина-Мочана-Ганапати (Ганапати, освобождающийся от рабства). Экаданта-Ганапати во время медитации в этой форме визуализируется как синий.

Ваханас

Танцующая скульптура Ганеши из Северной Бенгалии, 11 век н.э., Музей азиатского искусства из Берлин (Далем ).

Самые ранние изображения Ганеши не имеют ваханы (средство передвижения). Из восьми воплощений Ганеши, описанных в Мудгала Пуране, Ганеша использует мышь (землеройка) в пяти из них, лев в своем воплощении как Вакратунда, павлин в своем воплощении как Виката, и Шеша, божественный змей, в его воплощении как Вигхнараджа. Мохотката использует льва, Маюрешвару использует павлина, Дхумракету использует лошадь, а Гаджанана использует мышь в четырех воплощениях Ганеши, перечисленных в Ганеша-пуране. Джайнские изображения Ганеши показывают его вахану по-разному в виде мыши, слона, черепахи, барана, или павлин.

Ганеша часто изображается верхом на мышке, землеройке или крысе или в сопровождении ее. Мартин-Дубост говорит, что крыса начала появляться являются основным средством скульптуры Ганеши в центральной и западной Индии в 7 веке; крысу всегда ставили близко к его ногам. Мышь как верховое животное впервые появляется в письменных источниках в Матсья-пуране, а затем в Брахмананда-пуране и Ганеша-пуране, где Ганеша использует ее в качестве своего транспортного средства в своем последнем воплощении. Ганапати Атхарваширса включает стих о медитации на Ганешу, в котором описывается мышь, появляющаяся на его флаге. Имена Mūṣakavāhana (ездовая мышь) и Ākhuketana (знамя крысы) появляются в Ganesha Sahasranama.

Мышь интерпретируется по-разному. По словам Граймса, «Многие, если не большинство из тех, кто интерпретирует мышь Ганапати, делают это отрицательно; она символизирует тамогуну, а также желание». В этом смысле Майкл Уилкоксон говорит, что это символизирует тех, кто хочет преодолеть желания и быть менее эгоистичным. Кришан отмечает, что крыса губительна и угрожает посевам. Санскритское слово mūṣaka (мышь) происходит от корня mū (воровство, грабеж). Было важно победить крысу как разрушительного вредителя, вид вигны (препятствия), которое необходимо было преодолеть. Согласно этой теории, изображение Ганеши как хозяина крысы демонстрирует его функцию Виннешвары (Повелителя препятствий) и свидетельствует о его возможной роли как народного грама-девата (деревенского божества), который позже стал более известным. Мартин-Дубост отмечает мнение, что крыса — это символ, предполагающий, что Ганеша, как и крыса, проникает даже в самые сокровенные места.

Характеристики

Херамба -Ганеша с супругой, Непал 18 века

Устранение препятствий

Ганеша — это Вигнешвара (Vighnaraja, Marathi — Vighnaharta), Владыка препятствий, как материального, так и духовного порядка. Его широко почитают как устранителя препятствий, хотя традиционно он также ставит препятствия на пути тех, кого нужно сдерживать. Следовательно, люди часто поклоняются ему, прежде чем они начнут что-то новое. Пол Кортрайт говорит, что дхарма Ганеши и его смысл существования — создавать и устранять препятствия.

Кришан отмечает, что некоторые имена Ганеши отражают оттенки множества ролей, которые эволюционировали с течением времени. Дхаваликар приписывает быстрое восхождение Ганеши в индуистском пантеоне и появление Ганапатьев этому сдвигу акцента с вигнакарты (создателя препятствий) на вигнахарта (устраняющего препятствия). Однако обе функции по-прежнему жизненно важны для его персонажа.

Буддхи (Интеллект)

Ганеша считается властелином букв и знаний. На санскрите слово buddhi — действующее существительное, которое по-разному переводится как интеллект, мудрость или интеллект. Концепция буддхи тесно связана с личностью Ганеши, особенно в пуранический период, когда во многих историях подчеркивается его сообразительность и любовь к разуму. Одно из имен Ганеши в Ганеша Пуране и Ганеша Сахасранаме — Буддхиприя. Это имя также появляется в списке из 21 имени в конце Ганеши Сахасранамы, которые, по словам Ганеши, особенно важны. Слово прия может означать «любит», а в семейном контексте оно может означать «любовник» или «муж», поэтому имя может означать либо «Любящий разум», либо «Муж Буддхи».

Ом

Ганеша, период Чола, начало 13 века.

Ганеша отождествляется с индуистской мантрой Om. Термин омкарасварупа (Ом — его форма), когда он отождествляется с Ганешей, относится к представлению о том, что он олицетворяет изначальный звук. Ганапати Атхарваширша свидетельствует об этой ассоциации. Чинмаянанда переводит соответствующий отрывок следующим образом:

(О Господь Ганапати!) Ты (Тримурти) Брахма, Вишну и Махеша. Ты Индра. Вы огонь [Агни ] и воздух [Ваю ]. Вы солнце [Сурья ] и луна [Чандрама ]. Ты Брахман. Вы (три мира) Бхулока [земля], Антарикша-лока [пространство] и Сваргалока [небо]. Ты Ом. (То есть Вы все это).

Некоторые преданные видят сходство между формой тела Ганеши в иконографии и формой Ом в деванагари и тамильском сценарии.

Первая чакра

Согласно Кундалини-йога, Ганеша находится в первой чакре, называемой Муладхара (муладхара). Мула означает «оригинальный, главный»; адхара означает «основа, основание». Чакра муладхара — это принцип, на котором покоится проявление или внешнее расширение изначальной Божественной Силы. Об этой ассоциации также свидетельствует Ганапати Атхарваширша. Кортрайт переводит этот отрывок следующим образом: «Вы постоянно пребываете в крестцовом сплетении у основания позвоночника [муладхара чакра]». Таким образом, Ганеша имеет постоянное место жительства в каждом существе Муладхары. Ганеша удерживает, поддерживает и направляет все другие чакры, тем самым «управляя силами, которые приводят в движение колесо жизни «.

Семья и супруги

Шива и Парвати омывают Ганешу. Миниатюра Кангра, 18 век. Музей Аллахабада, Нью-Дели.

Хотя Ганеша обычно считается сыном Шивы и Парвати, пуранической мифы дают разные версии о его рождении. В некоторых он был создан Парвати, в других он был создан Шивой и Парвати, в третьих он появился загадочно и был обнаружен Шивой и Парвати, или он родился от богини с головой слона Малини после того, как она выпил воду для ванны Парвати, которую вылили в реку.

В семье есть его брат, бог войны, Картикея, которого также зовут Сканда и Муруган. Порядок определяется региональными различиями. В северной Индии Сканда обычно считается старшим, а на юге Ганеша считается первенцем. 371>северная Индия, Сканда был важным боевым божеством примерно с 500 г. до н.э. до примерно 600 г. н.э., после чего поклонение ему значительно уменьшилось. Когда Сканда упал, Ганеша поднялся. Несколько историй рассказывают о соперничестве между братьями и могут отражать межконфессиональную напряженность.

Семейное положение Ганеши, являющееся предметом значительного научного обзора, широко варьируется в мифологических историях. Один менее известный и непопулярный образец мифов идентифицирует Ганешу как холостого брахмачари. Эта точка зрения распространена в южной Индии и некоторых частях северной Индии. Другой общепринятый основной образец связывает его с концепциями буддхи (интеллекта), сиддхи (духовной силы) и риддхи (процветания); эти качества олицетворяются богинями, которых называют женами Ганеши. Он также может быть изображен с единственной супругой или безымянным слугой (санскрит: даши). Другой образец связывает Ганешу с богиней культуры и искусств Сарасвати или Шардой (особенно в Махараштре ). Он также связан с богиней удачи и процветания, Лакшми. Другой образец, в основном распространенный в регионе Бенгалии, связывает Ганешу с банановым деревом Кала Бо.

Шива Пурана говорит, что Ганеша родил двух сыновей: Кшема ( процветание) и лабха (прибыль). В северно-индийских вариантах этой истории сыновья часто называются Шубха (благоприятное начало) и Лабха. В фильме 1975 года на хинди Джай Сантоши Маа показано, что Ганеша женат на Риддхи и Сиддхи и имеет дочь по имени Сантоши Ма, богиню удовлетворения. Эта история не имеет пуранической основы, но Анита Райна Тхапан и Лоуренс Коэн цитируют культ Сантоши Ма как свидетельство продолжающейся эволюции Ганеши как популярного божества.

Поклонение и фестивали

Празднование Ганеши тамилами община в Париже, Франция

Ганеше поклоняются во многих религиозных и светских случаях, особенно в начале деятельности, такой как покупка автомобиля или открытие бизнеса. К. Н. Сумяджи говорит: «Вряд ли может быть [индуистский] дом [в Индии], в котором не обитал бы идол Ганапати… Ганапати, будучи самым популярным божеством в Индии, поклоняются почти все касты и во всех частях мира. страны». Преданные верят, что если Ганешу умилостивить, он дарует успех, процветание и защиту от невзгод.

Ганеша — несектантское божество. Индусы всех деноминаций призывают его в начале молитв, важных дел и религиозных церемоний. Танцоры и музыканты, особенно в южной Индии, начинают художественные представления, такие как Бхаратнатьям, с молитвы Ганеше. Мантры, такие как Ом Шри Ганешая Намах (Ом, приветствие Прославленному Ганеше)) часто используются. Одной из самых известных мантр, связанных с Ганешей, является Ом Гаṃ Ганапатайе Намах (Ом, Га, Приветствие Владыке Воинств).

Преданные предлагают Ганеше сладости, такие как модака и маленькие сладкие шарики называется ладдус. Его часто изображают с миской сладостей, называемой модакапатрой. Из-за того, что он отождествляет себя с красным цветом, ему часто поклоняются с пастой из красного сандалового дерева (рактачандана) или красными цветами. Трава дурвы (Cynodon dactylon ) и другие материалы также используются в его поклонении.

Фестивали, связанные с Ганешем, — это Ганеш Чатуртхи или Винаяка чатуртхи в шуклапакше (четвертый день растущей луны) в месяц Бхадрапада (август / сентябрь) и Ганеш Джаянти (день рождения Ганеши), отмечаемые в катурти шуклапакши (четвертый день растущей луны) в месяце магха (январь / февраль).»

Ганеша Чатуртхи

Уличные гуляния в Хайдарабаде, Индия во время фестиваля Ганеша Чатуртхи

Ежегодный фестиваль чествует Ганешу в течение десяти дней, начиная с Ганеша Чатуртхи, который обычно приходится на конец августа или начало сентября. Фестиваль начинается с того, что люди приносят глиняных идолов Ганеши, символизирующих визит бога. достигает своей кульминации в день Ананта Чатурдаши, когда идолы (мурти ) погружаются в наиболее удобный водоем. Некоторые семьи есть традиция погружения на 2-й, 3-й, 5-й или 7-й день. В 1893 году Локманья Тилак превратил этот ежегодный праздник Ганеши из частных семейных праздников в грандиозное общественное мероприятие. Он сделал это, чтобы «преодолеть пропасть между браминами и небрахманами и найти подходящий контекст, в котором можно построить новое массовое единство между ними» в своих националистических устремлениях против британцев в Махараштре.. Из-за широкой привлекательности Ганеши как «бога для обывателей» Тилак выбрал его как точку сплочения индийского протеста против британского правления. Тилак был первым, кто установил большие публичные изображения Ганеши в павильонах, и он установил практику погружения всех публичных изображений на десятый день. Сегодня индусы по всей Индии с большим пылом празднуют фестиваль Ганапати, хотя он наиболее популярен в штате Махараштра. Фестиваль также принимает огромные масштабы в Мумбаи, Пуне и в окружающем поясе храмов Аштавинаяки.

Храмы

Храм Моргаон, главный храм Аштавиньяка

В индуистских храмах Ганеша изображается по-разному: как подчиненное божество (pãrśva-devatã); как божество, связанное с главным божеством (паривара-девата); или как главное божество храма (прадхана). Как бог переходов, его ставят у дверей многих индуистских храмов, чтобы не пускать недостойных, что аналогично его роли привратника Парвати. Кроме того, несколько святынь посвящены самому Ганеше, из которых особенно хорошо известен Аштавинаяк (санскрит: अष्टविनायक; анавинаяка; букв. «Восемь Ганеша (святынь)») в Махараштре. Расположенные в 100-километровом радиусе от города Пуна, каждое из восьми святилищ прославляет определенную форму Ганапати со своими собственными преданиями. Восемь святынь: Моргаон, Сиддхатек, Пали, Махад, Теур, Ленядри, Озар и Ранджангаон.

Есть много других важных храмов Ганеши в следующих местах: Вай в Махараштре; Удджайн в Мадхья-Прадеше ; Джодхпур, Нагаур и Райпур (Пали ) в Раджастане ; Байдьянатх в Бихаре ; Барода, Дхолака и Валсад в Гуджарате и храм Дхундирадж в Варанаси, Уттар-Прадеш. Известные храмы Ганеши на юге Индии включают следующие: Канипакам в Андхра-Прадеш ; Храм Уччи Пиллаяр в Рокфорте в Тиручирапалли в Тамил Наду ; Коттараккара, Пажавангади, Касаргод в Керале ; Хампи и Идагунджи в Карнатаке ; и Бхадрачалам в Телангана.

Т. А. Гопинатха отмечает: «В каждой деревне, какой бы маленькой она ни была, есть свое изображение Вигнешвары (Виннешвары) с храмом или без него, чтобы разместить его. У входов в деревни и форты, под деревьями пипана (Священный инжир )…. в нише… в храмах Вишну (Вишну) и Шивы (Шивы), а также в отдельных святилищах, специально построенных в храмах Шивы… фигура Вигнешвары неизменно видна ». Храмы Ганеши также были построены за пределами Индии, включая Юго-Восточную Азию, Непал (включая четыре святилища Винаяки в долине Катманду ) и в нескольких западных странах..

Прославление

Первое появление

Мраморный Ганеша 5-го века, найденный в Гардезе, Афганистан и однажды выставленный в Даргахе Пир Раттан Нат, Кабул (нынешнее местонахождение неизвестно). Надпись гласит, что это «великое и прекрасное изображение Махавинаяки» было освящено Шахи царем Хингала.

Ганеша появился в своей классической форме как ясно узнаваемое божество с четко определенными иконографическими атрибутами в начало 4-5 веков нашей эры. Некоторые из самых ранних известных изображений Ганеши включают два изображения, найденные в восточном Афганистане. Первое изображение было обнаружено в руинах к северу от Кабула вместе с изображениями Сурьи и Шивы. Он датируется 4 веком. На втором изображении, найденном в Гардезе, есть надпись на постаменте Ганеши, которая помогла датировать его V веком. Другая скульптура Ганеши встроена в стены Пещеры 6 Пещер Удаягири в Мадхья-Прадеше. Это датируется 5 веком. Раннее культовое изображение Ганеши со слоновой головой, миской сладостей и богиней, сидящей на его коленях, было найдено в руинах храма Бхумара в Мадхья-Прадеше и датируется V веком. Период Гуптов. Другие недавние открытия, такие как открытие на холме Рамгарх, также датируются 4-5 веками. Независимый культ с Ганешей в качестве главного божества утвердился примерно к 10 веку. Нараин резюмирует отсутствие свидетельств об истории Ганеши до V века следующим образом:

Что непостижимо, так это несколько драматическое появление Ганеши на исторической сцене. Его предшественники не ясны. Его широкое признание и популярность, выходящие за рамки религиозных и территориальных ограничений, действительно поражают. С одной стороны, существует благочестивая вера ортодоксальных преданных в ведическое происхождение Ганеши и в пуранические объяснения, содержащиеся в запутанной, но, тем не менее, интересной мифологии. С другой стороны, есть сомнения в существовании идеи и изображения этого божества «до четвертого-пятого веков нашей эры… [Я] на мой взгляд, действительно нет убедительных доказательств [в древней брахманической литературе] о существовании этого божества до пятого века.

Доказательства более древнего Ганеши, предполагает Нараин, могут проживать за пределами брахманических или санскритских традиций или вне геокультурных границ Индии. Ганеша появляется в Китае к VI веку, как утверждает Браун, его художественные образы в храмах как «устранителя препятствий» в Южной Азии появляются примерно к 400 г. н.э. Он, утверждает Бейли, признан сыном богини Парвати и интегрирован в шиваизм богословие первых веков нашей эры.

Возможные влияния

Ганеше поклонялись во время Дурга Пуджа празднования в Кельне

Кортрайт рассматривает различные спекулятивные теории о раннем история Ганеши, включая предполагаемые племенные традиции и г) культов животных, и отвергает их все таким образом:

В этом поиске исторического происхождения Ганеши некоторые предлагали точные места за пределами брахманической традиции… Эти исторические места, конечно, интригуют, но остается фактом, что все они являются спекуляциями, вариациями дравидийской гипотезы, которая утверждает, что все, что не подтверждено в ведических и индоевропейских источниках, должно было проникнуть в брахманскую религию из дравидийского или аборигенного населения Индии как часть процесса, породившего Индуизм возник из взаимодействия арийского и неарийского населения. Нет никаких независимых свидетельств культа слонов или тотема; также нет никаких археологических данных, указывающих на традицию, предшествующую тому, что мы уже видим в пуранской литературе и иконографии Ганеши.

Книга Тхапана о развитии Ганеши посвящает главу размышлениям о роли слонов в ранней Индии, но приходит к выводу, что «хотя ко II веку нашей эры уже существует форма якши с головой слона, нельзя предполагать, что она представляет Ганапати-Винаяку. Нет никаких доказательств того, что божество с таким именем имело форму слона или голову слона в этот ранний период. Ганапати-Винаяка еще не дебютировал ».

Корни поклонения Ганеше уходят корнями в 3000 г. до н.э. со времен цивилизации долины Инда. В 1993 году в провинции Лорестан, Иран, в провинции Лорестан, Иран, была обнаружена металлическая пластина, изображающая фигуру с головой слона, интерпретируемую как Ганеша, датируемая 1200 годом до нашей эры. Первые терракотовые изображения Ганеши относятся к I веку нашей эры и были найдены в Тер, Пал, Веррапурам и Чандракетугарх. Эти фигурки маленькие, с головой слона, двумя руками и пухлым телосложением. Самые ранние каменные иконы Ганеши были вырезаны в Матхуре во времена Кушана (2–3 вв. Н. Э.).

Согласно одной из теорий происхождения Ганеши, он постепенно стал известен в связи с четырьмя Винаяками. (Винаяки). В индуистской мифологии Винаяки были группой из четырех неприятных демонов, которые создавали препятствия и трудности, но которых легко умилостивить. Имя Винаяка — общее имя Ганеши как в Пуранах, так и в буддийских тантрах. Кришан — один из ученых, которые принимают эту точку зрения, категорически заявляя о Ганеше: «Он — не ведический бог. Его происхождение следует проследить до четырех Винаяков, злых духов Манавагтхьясутры (7-4 века до н.э.), которые причинять различные виды зла и страданий «. Изображения человеческих фигур с головой слона, которые некоторые отождествляют с Ганешей, появляются в индийском искусстве и чеканке уже во II веке. Согласно Эллавале, слоноголовый Ганеша как повелитель Ган был известен людям Шри-Ланки в раннюю дохристианскую эпоху.

Ведическая и эпическая литература

17-е. век Раджастхан Рукопись I Махабхараты, изображающая Вьясу, повествующую Махабхарату Ганеше, который служит писцом

Титул «Лидер группы» ( Санскрит: гаṇапати) дважды встречается в Ригведе, но ни в том, ни в другом случае не относится к современному Ганеше. По словам комментаторов, этот термин появляется в RV 2.23.1 как название для Брахманаспати. Хотя этот стих, несомненно, относится к Брахманаспати, позже он был принят для поклонения Ганеше и используется до сих пор. Отвергая любое утверждение о том, что этот отрывок является свидетельством Ганеши в Ригведе, Людо Роше говорит, что он «явно относится к Брихаспати, который является божеством гимна, и только Брихаспати». Столь же ясно, что второй отрывок (RV 10.112.9) относится к Индре, которому дали эпитет «гаṇапати», что переводится как «Владыка отрядов (марутов)». Однако Роше отмечает, что более поздняя литература о Ганапатье часто цитирует стихи Ригведы, чтобы придать Ведическую респектабельность Ганеше.

Тамильский поэт периода Сангама Аввайяр (3 век до н.э.), взывает к Ганеше во время подготовки приглашение трем тамильским королевствам для выдачи брака Ангавая и Сангавая с Цейлона за короля Тируковалура (стр. 57–59).

Два стиха в текстах, принадлежащих Чёрной Яджурведе, Майтрайания Санхита (2.9.1) и Тайттирия Шраньяка (10.1), обращаются к божеству как к «бивневому» (Дантиш), «слоновому» ( Хастимуха), и «с изогнутым стволом» (Вакратуна). Эти имена наводят на мысль о Ганеше, и комментатор XIV века Саяна прямо устанавливает это отождествление. Описание Дантина, обладающего скрученным стволом (вакратуна) и держащего в руках сноп кукурузы, сахарного тростника и дубинки, настолько характерно для пуранического Ганапати, что Герас говорит: «Мы не можем устоять перед тем, чтобы принять его полное отождествление с этим ведическим Дантином. «. Однако Кришан считает эти гимны постведические дополнения. Тхапан сообщает, что эти отрывки «обычно считаются интерполированными». Дхаваликар говорит: «Упоминания о слоноголовом божестве в« Майтраяни Самхите »оказались очень поздней интерполяцией и поэтому не очень полезны для определения раннего формирования божества».

Ганеша не делает этого. появляются в индийской эпической литературе, которая датируется ведическим периодом. В поздней интерполяции к эпической поэме Махабхарата (1.1.75–79) говорится, что мудрец Вьяса (Вьяса) попросил Ганешу быть его писцом, чтобы он переписал стихотворение так, как он его продиктовал. ему. Ганеша согласился, но только при условии, что Вьяса будет читать стихотворение непрерывно, то есть без пауз. Мудрец согласился, но обнаружил, что для отдыха ему нужно читать очень сложные отрывки, поэтому Ганешу придется попросить разъяснений. Этот рассказ не принимается как часть оригинального текста редакторами критического издания Махабхараты, в котором рассказ из двадцати строк помещен в сноску в приложении. История Ганеши, действующего как писец, встречается в 37 из 59 рукописей, которые использовались при подготовке критического издания. Связь Ганеши с умственной ловкостью и обучением является одной из причин, по которой он показан как писец для диктовки Вьясы Махабхараты в этой вставке. Ричард Л. Браун датирует эту историю 8 веком, а Мориц Винтерниц заключает, что она была известна уже c. 900, но не было добавлено в Махабхарату 150 лет спустя. Винтерниц также отмечает, что отличительной чертой южноиндийских манускриптов Махабхараты является отсутствие в них легенды о Ганеше. Термин винаяка встречается в некоторых редакциях Шантипарвы и Анушасанапарвы, которые рассматриваются как вставки. Ссылка на Vighnakartṛīṇām («Создатель препятствий») в Vanaparva также считается интерполяцией и не появляется в критическом издании.

Пуранический период

Панчаятана, ориентированная на Ганешу: Ганеша (в центре) с Шивой (вверху слева), Деви (вверху справа), Вишну (внизу слева) и Сурья (внизу справа).

Истории о Ганеше часто встречаются в пураническом корпусе. Браун отмечает, что в то время как Пураны «бросают вызов точному хронологическому порядку», более подробные повествования о жизни Ганеши находятся в поздних текстах, c. 600–1300. Юврадж Кришан говорит, что пуранические мифы о рождении Ганеши и о том, как он приобрел голову слона, содержатся в более поздних Пуранах, которые были составлены из ок. 600 г. Он уточняет этот вопрос, говоря, что ссылки на Ганешу в более ранних пуранах, таких как Вайю и Брахманда-пураны, являются более поздними вставками, сделанными в течение 7-10 веков.

В его обзоре становления Ганеши выдающегося положения в Санскритская литература, Людо Роше отмечает, что:

Прежде всего, нельзя не поразиться тому факту, что многочисленные рассказы, окружающие Ганешу, концентрируются на неожиданно ограниченном количестве инцидентов. Этих инцидентов в основном три: его рождение и отцовство, его голова слона и его единственный бивень. В текстах затрагиваются и другие инциденты, но в гораздо меньшей степени.

Подъем Ганеши к известности был зафиксирован в 9 веке, когда он был официально включен в качестве одного из пяти основных божеств смартизма. Философ 9-го века Ади Шанкара популяризировал систему «поклонения пяти формам» (Панчайатана пуджа ) среди ортодоксальных браминов традиции смарта. Эта практика поклонения призывает пять божеств: Ганешу, Вишну, Шиву, Деви и Сурью. Ади Шанкара установил традицию в первую очередь объединять главных божеств этих пяти основных сект на равных правах. Это формализовало роль Ганеши как дополнительного божества.

Священные Писания

Статуя Ганеши в 9 веке Храм Прамбанан, Ява, Индонезия

После того, как Ганеша был признан одним из пяти главных божеств индуизма, некоторые индусы выбрали Ганешу своим главное божество. Они развили традицию Ганапатья, как это видно из Ганеша-пураны и Мудгала-пураны.

Дата составления Ганеша-пураны и Мудгала-пураны — и их датировка относительно друг друга — вызвало академические дебаты. Обе работы развивались с течением времени и содержат возрастные слои. Анита Тхапан рассматривает комментарий о свиданиях и высказывает собственное мнение. «Кажется вероятным, что суть Ганеша-пураны возникла примерно в двенадцатом и тринадцатом веках, — говорит она, — но позже была вставлена». Лоуренс В. Престон считает наиболее подходящей датой для Ганеша-пураны 1100–1400 годы, что совпадает с очевидным возрастом священных мест, упомянутых в тексте.

R.C. Хазра предполагает, что Мудгала-пурана старше Ганеша-пураны, которую он датирует между 1100 и 1400 годами. Однако Филлис Гранофф находит проблемы с этой относительной датировкой и приходит к выводу, что Мудгала-пурана была последним из философских текстов, связанных с Ганешей. Она основывает свои рассуждения на том факте, что, среди других внутренних доказательств, Мудгала-пурана конкретно упоминает Ганеша-пурану как одну из четырех пуран (Брахма, Брахманда, Ганеша и Мудгала-пуран), которые подробно рассматривают Ганешу. Хотя ядро ​​текста должно быть старым, оно было вставлено до 17-18 веков, поскольку поклонение Ганапати стало более важным в определенных регионах. Другое высоко ценимое писание, Ганапати Атхарваширса, вероятно, было составлено в течение 16 или 17 веков.

Ганеша Сахасранама является частью пуранической литературы и представляет собой литанию из тысячи имен и атрибутов Ганеши. Каждое имя в сахасранама передает различное значение и символизирует разные аспекты Ганеши. Версии Ганеши Сахасранамы можно найти в Ганеша-пуране.

. Один из самых важных санскритских текстов, пользующихся авторитетом в традиции Ганапатья, согласно Джону Граймсу, это Ганапати Атхарваширса.

За пределами Индии и индуизма

«Танцующий Ганеш. Центральный Тибет. Начало пятнадцатого века. Цвета на хлопке. Высота: 68 сантиметров». Эта форма также известна как Махаракта («Великий Красный»). Японская форма Ганеши — Кангитен, картина Шорокуана Экичо конца XVIII / начала XIX века

Коммерческая и культурная контакты расширили влияние Индии в Западной и Юго-Восточной Азии. Ганеша — одно из многих индуистских божеств, которые впоследствии достигли чужих земель.

Ганеша особенно почитался торговцами и торговцами, которые уехали из Индии для коммерческих предприятий. Примерно с 10 века и далее развивались новые сети обмена, включая образование торговых гильдий и возрождение денежного обращения. За это время Ганеша стал главным божеством, связанным с торговцами. Самая ранняя надпись, призывающая Ганешу до любого другого божества, связана с торговым сообществом.

Индусы мигрировали в Приморскую Юго-Восточную Азию и забрали с собой свою культуру, включая Ганешу. Статуи Ганеши можно найти по всему региону, часто рядом со святилищами Шивы. Формы Ганеши, встречающиеся в индуистском искусстве Филиппин, Явы, Бали и Борнео, демонстрируют специфические региональные влияния. Распространение индуистской культуры по Юго-Восточной Азии установило поклонение Ганеше в измененных формах в Бирме, Камбодже и Таиланде. В Индокитае индуизм и буддизм практиковались бок о бок, и взаимное влияние можно увидеть в иконографии Ганеши в этом регионе. В Таиланде, Камбодже и среди индуистских классов чамов во Вьетнаме Ганеша в основном считался устранителем препятствий.

Сегодня в буддийском Таиланде Ганеша считается устранителем препятствий, бог успеха. Таиланд считает Ганешу главным образом богом искусств и ученых. Вера была инициирована королем Ваджиравудхом из династии Чакри, который был лично предан Ганеше. Он даже построил святыню Ганеши в своем личном дворце дворец Санам Чандра в провинции Накхонпатхом, где сосредоточился на своих академических и литературных работах. Его личная вера в Ганешу как бога искусств официально стала заметной после создания Отдела изящных искусств, где он взял Ганешу в качестве печати. Сегодня Ганеша изображен как на печати Департамента изящных искусств, так и в первой известной академии изящных искусств Таиланда; Университет Силпакорн.

До прихода ислама Афганистан имел тесные культурные связи с Индией, и поклонялись индуистским и буддийским божествам. Сохранились образцы скульптур 5-7 веков, что позволяет предположить, что поклонение Ганеше было тогда в моде в этом регионе.

Ганеша появляется в махаяне буддизме, а не только в форме буддийского бога Винаяки, но также как индуистская форма демона с тем же именем. Его изображение появляется в буддийских скульптурах позднего периода Гупта. Как буддийского бога Винаяку, его часто изображают танцующим. Эта форма, получившая название Nṛtta Ganapati, была популярна в северной Индии, позже принята в Непале, а затем в Тибете. В Непале популярна индуистская форма Ганеши, известная как Герамба ; у него пять голов и он едет на льве. Тибетские представления о Ганеше демонстрируют двойственные взгляды на него. Тибетский перевод Ганапати — tshogs bdag. В одной тибетской форме его топчет ногой Махакала, (Шива) популярное тибетское божество. На других изображениях он изображен как Разрушитель препятствий и иногда танцует. Ганеша появляется в Китае и Японии в формах, которые демонстрируют отчетливый региональный характер. В северном Китае самая ранняя известная каменная статуя Ганеши имеет надпись, датируемую 531. В Японии, где Ганеша известен как Кангитен, культ Ганеши впервые упоминается в 806 году. 249>

Каноническая литература джайнизма не упоминает поклонение Ганеше. Однако Ганеша почитается большинством джайнов, для которых он, кажется, взял на себя определенные функции бога богатства Куберы. Связи джайнов с торговым сообществом поддерживают идею о том, что джайнизм начал поклоняться Ганеше в результате коммерческих связей. Самая ранняя известная статуя Джайна Ганеши датируется 9 веком. В джайнском тексте 15-го века перечислены процедуры установки изображений. Изображения Ганеши появляются в джайнских храмах Раджастана и Гуджарата.

Пояснительные примечания

Цитаты

Общие ссылки

Внешние ссылки

  • «Ганеша» в Британской энциклопедии
  • Ганеш: символ и присутствие

The Ganesha Sahasranama (Sanskrit:गणेश सहस्रनाम; gaṇeśa sahasranāma) is a litany of the names of Hindu deity Ganesha (Gaṇeśa). A sahasranama is a Hindu hymn of praise in which a deity is referred to by 1,000 or more different names. Ganesha Sahasranamas are recited in many temples today as a living part of Ganesha devotion.

There are two different major versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama, with subvariants of each version.

One major version appears in chapter I.46 of the Ganesha Purana (Gaṇeśa Purāṇa), an important scripture of the Ganapatya (Gāṇapatya). This version provides an encyclopedic review of Ganesha’s attributes and roles as they were understood by the Ganapatya. A Sanskrit commentary on a subvariant of this version of the Ganesha Sahasranama was written by Bhaskararaya. (Bhāskararāya).[1] Bhaskararaya titles his commentary Khadyota (“Firefly”), making a play on words based on two different meanings of this Sanskrit term. In his opening remarks Bhaskararaya says that some will say that because the commentary is very brief it is inconsequential like a firefly (khadyota) but to devotees it will shine like the sun (khadyota). The source text (Sanskrit:मूल; mūla) of Bhaskararaya’s Khadyota commentary generally follows the text of the 1993 reprint edition Ganesha Purana (GP-1993)[2]
, but there are quite a few differences in names, and the versification differs slightly. There are enough differences so that the Bhaskararaya variant and the GP-1993 versions can be considered as distinct.

There is a completely different second major version in which all of the names begin with the letter ‘g’ ( ग् ).[3] The names and structure of this version bear no resemblance to the Ganesha Purana version.

External links

  • Downloadable Sanskrit version of a variant of the Ganesha Sahasranama

See also

  • Sahasranama
  • Lalita sahasranama
  • Vishnu sahasranama
  • Shiva sahasranama

References

  1. Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Includes the full source text and the commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  2. Sharma, Ram Karan (1993). Ganesha Purana. Nag Publishers. ISBN 81-7081-279-8.
  3. A subvariant of this alliterative version appears in the book Lord Ganesha by Sadguru Sant Keshavadas, Vishwa Dharma Publications, 1988, isbn = 0685510123.
  • v
  • t
  • e

Ganesha

Biography

Ganesha stories • Consorts of Ganesha Historical development Vinayakas

Worship

Ganapatya Ganesh Chaturthi • Ganesh Jayanti Ganapati Temples Ashtavinayaka Temples Ganesha in world religions

Texts

Ganesha Purana Mudgala Purana Ganapati Atharvashirsa Ganesha Sahasranama Sritattvanidhi

See also

Hinduism • Hindu mythology • Smartism Shiva • Parvati • Skanda • Gana • Ganesha at Wikimedia Commons

id:Ganesa Sahasranama

The Ganesha Sahasranama (Sanskrit:गणेश सहस्रनाम; gaṇeśa sahasranāma) is a litany of the names of Hindu deity Ganesha (Gaṇeśa). A sahasranama is a Hindu hymn of praise in which a deity is referred to by 1,000 or more different names. Ganesha Sahasranamas are recited in many temples today as a living part of Ganesha devotion.

There are two different major versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama, with subvariants of each version.

One major version appears in chapter I.46 of the Ganesha Purana (Gaṇeśa Purāṇa), an important scripture of the Ganapatya (Gāṇapatya). This version provides an encyclopedic review of Ganesha’s attributes and roles as they were understood by the Ganapatya. A Sanskrit commentary on a subvariant of this version of the Ganesha Sahasranama was written by Bhaskararaya. (Bhāskararāya).[1] Bhaskararaya titles his commentary Khadyota (“Firefly”), making a play on words based on two different meanings of this Sanskrit term. In his opening remarks Bhaskararaya says that some will say that because the commentary is very brief it is inconsequential like a firefly (khadyota) but to devotees it will shine like the sun (khadyota). The source text (Sanskrit:मूल; mūla) of Bhaskararaya’s Khadyota commentary generally follows the text of the 1993 reprint edition Ganesha Purana (GP-1993)[2]
, but there are quite a few differences in names, and the versification differs slightly. There are enough differences so that the Bhaskararaya variant and the GP-1993 versions can be considered as distinct.

There is a completely different second major version in which all of the names begin with the letter ‘g’ ( ग् ).[3] The names and structure of this version bear no resemblance to the Ganesha Purana version.

External links

  • Downloadable Sanskrit version of a variant of the Ganesha Sahasranama

See also

  • Sahasranama
  • Lalita sahasranama
  • Vishnu sahasranama
  • Shiva sahasranama

References

  1. Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Includes the full source text and the commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  2. Sharma, Ram Karan (1993). Ganesha Purana. Nag Publishers. ISBN 81-7081-279-8.
  3. A subvariant of this alliterative version appears in the book Lord Ganesha by Sadguru Sant Keshavadas, Vishwa Dharma Publications, 1988, isbn = 0685510123.
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Ganesha

Biography

Ganesha stories • Consorts of Ganesha Historical development Vinayakas

Worship

Ganapatya Ganesh Chaturthi • Ganesh Jayanti Ganapati Temples Ashtavinayaka Temples Ganesha in world religions

Texts

Ganesha Purana Mudgala Purana Ganapati Atharvashirsa Ganesha Sahasranama Sritattvanidhi

See also

Hinduism • Hindu mythology • Smartism Shiva • Parvati • Skanda • Gana • Ganesha at Wikimedia Commons

id:Ganesa Sahasranama

Ganesha

God of New Beginnings, Wisdom and Luck
Remover of Obstacles[1][2]
Supreme God (Ganapatya)

Attired in an orange dhoti, an elephant-headed man sits on a large lotus. His body is red in colour and he wears various golden necklaces and bracelets and a snake around his neck. On the three points of his crown, budding lotuses have been fixed. He holds in his two right hands the rosary (lower hand) and a cup filled with three modakas (round yellow sweets), a fourth modaka held by the curving trunk is just about to be tasted. In his two left hands, he holds a lotus in the upper hand and an axe in the lower one, with its handle leaning against his shoulder.

Basohli miniature, c. 1730. National Museum, New Delhi.[3]

Affiliation Deva, Brahman (Ganapatya), Saguna Brahman (Panchayatana puja)
Abode • Mount Kailash (with parents)
• Svānandaloka
Mantra Oṃ Ekadantaya Vidmahe,Vakrathundaya Dhimahi,Thanno Danthi Prachodhayat
Oṃ Shri Gaṇeśāya Namaḥ
Oṃ Gaṃ Gaṇapataye Namaḥ
Weapon Paraśu (axe), pāśa (noose), aṅkuśa (elephant goad)
Symbols Swastika, Om, Modak
Mount Mouse
Texts Ganesha Purana, Mudgala Purana, Ganapati Atharvashirsa
Gender Male
Festivals Ganesh Chaturthi, Diwali
Personal information
Parents
  • Shiva (father)
  • Parvati (mother)
Siblings Kartikeya (brother)
Consort Riddhi and Siddhi or celibate
Equivalents
Buddhists equivalent Kangiten

Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश, IAST: Gaṇeśa), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon[4] and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India.[5] Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations.[6] Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists and includes Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, China, and Japan and in countries with large ethnic Hindus populations including United States,[7] Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, and Trinidad and Tobago.[8]

Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his elephant head.[9] He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and thought to bring good luck;[10][11] the patron of arts and sciences; and the deva of intellect and wisdom.[12] As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as a patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.[2][13] Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits.

While scholars differ about his origins dating him between 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, Ganesha was well established by the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta period and had inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.[14] Hindu mythology identifies him as the son of Parvati and Shiva of the Shaivism tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions.[15][16] In the Ganapatya tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the Supreme Being.[17] The principal texts on Ganesha include the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana and the Ganapati Atharvasirsha.

Etymology and other names[edit]

Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati (Ganpati), Vighneshvara, and Pillaiyar. The Hindu title of respect Shri (Sanskrit: श्री; IAST: śrī; also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name.[18]

The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (gaṇa), meaning a ‘group, multitude, or categorical system’ and isha (īśa), meaning ‘lord or master’.[19] The word gaṇa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva, Ganesha’s father.[20] The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[21] Some commentators interpret the name «Lord of the Gaṇas» to mean «Lord of Hosts» or «Lord of created categories», such as the elements.[22] Ganapati (गणपति; gaṇapati), a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning «group», and pati, meaning «ruler» or «lord».[21] Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha.[23][24] The Amarakosha,[25] an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha: Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers),[26] Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana (gajānana); having the face of an elephant.[27]

Vinayaka (विनायक; vināyaka) or Binayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (Marathi: अष्टविनायक, aṣṭavināyaka).[29] The names Vighnesha (विघ्नेश; vighneśa) and Vighneshvara (विघ्नेश्वर; vighneśvara) (Lord of Obstacles)[30] refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).[31]

A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai (Tamil: பிள்ளை) or Pillaiyar (பிள்ளையார்).[32] A.K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a «child» while pillaiyar means a «noble child». He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify «tooth or tusk», also «elephant tooth or tusk».[33] Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant «the young of the elephant», because the Pali word pillaka means «a young elephant».[34]

In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne (မဟာပိန္နဲ, pronounced [məhà pèiɰ̃né]), derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka (မဟာဝိနာယက).[35] The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikanet.[36] The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present-day Indonesia,[37] Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th and 8th centuries,[38] and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier.[39] In Sri Lankan Singhala Buddhist areas, he is known as Gana deviyo, and revered along with Buddha, Vishnu, Skanda and others.[40]

Iconography[edit]

Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art.[41] Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.[42] He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century CE.[43] The 13th-century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha’s common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[44] and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.[45] Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[46] A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.[47] Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head.[note 1]

The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhaya mudra).[51] The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.[52]

Common attributes[edit]

A typical four-armed form. Miniature of Nurpur school (circa 1810)[53]

Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[54] Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[55] One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[56] While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.[57] The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha’s original head with that of an elephant.[58] Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source.[59] Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva’s laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[60]

Ganesha’s earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken.[61] Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[62] The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha’s second incarnation is Ekadanta.[63] Ganesha’s protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries).[64] This feature is so important that according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly).[65] Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: udara).[66] The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; IAST: brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in him.[67]

The number of Ganesha’s arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[68] Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[69] His earliest images had two arms.[70] Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.[71] The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.[72] According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck.[73] Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: yajñyopavīta)[74] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha’s forehead may be a third eye or the sectarian mark (IAST: tilaka), which consists of three horizontal lines.[75] The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[76] A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra (IAST: bhālacandra; «Moon on the Forehead») includes that iconographic element.[77]

Ganesha is often described as red in colour.[78] Specific colours are associated with certain forms.[79] Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).[80] Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualised as blue during meditation in that form.[81]

Vahanas[edit]

Ganesha on his vahana mooshika the rat, c. 1820

The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle).[82] Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.[83] Mohotkata uses a lion, Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.[84]

Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat.[85] Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.[86] The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.[87] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.[88] The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.[89]

The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, «Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati‘s mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire».[90] Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[91] Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[92] Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.[93]

Features[edit]

Heramba-Ganesha with consort, 18th century Nepal

Removal of obstacles[edit]

Ganesha is Vighneshvara (Vighnaraja, Marathi – Vighnaharta), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.[94] He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin anything new.[95] Paul Courtright says that Ganesha’s dharma and his raison d’être is to create and remove obstacles.[96]

Krishan notes that some of Ganesha’s names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.[31] Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter).[97] However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.[98]

Buddhi (Intelligence)[edit]

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.[99] In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[100] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha’s names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya.[101] This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important.[102] The word priya can mean «fond of», and in a marital context it can mean «lover» or «husband»,[103] so the name may mean either «Fond of Intelligence» or «Buddhi’s Husband».[104]

Om[edit]

Ganesha, Chola period, early 13th century.

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.[105] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:[106]

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha’s body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.[107]

First chakra[edit]

According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means «original, main»; adhara means «base, foundation». The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.[108] This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: «You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra].»[109] Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.[110] Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby «governing the forces that propel the wheel of life».[108]

Family and consorts[edit]

Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic texts give different versions about his birth.[112] In some he was created by Parvati,[113] or by Shiva[114] or created by Shiva and Parvati,[115] in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati[116] or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati’s bath water that had been thrown in the river.[117]

The family includes his brother, the god of war, Kartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan.[118] Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn.[119] In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers[120] and may reflect sectarian tensions.[121]

Ganesha’s marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.[122] One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmachari.[123] This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.[124] Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha’s wives.[125] He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi).[126] Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra).[127] He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi.[128] Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.[129]

The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (safety) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciousness) and Lābha.[130] The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma’s cult as evidence of Ganesha’s continuing evolution as a popular deity.[131]

Worship and festivals[edit]

Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions, especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.[132] K.N Soumyaji says, «there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. … Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country».[133] Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.[134]

Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.[135] Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the Bharatanatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha.[78] Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).[136]

Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus. He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra.[137] Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktachandana)[138] or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.[139]

Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesha Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of Bhadrapada (August/September) and the Ganesh Jayanti (Ganesha’s birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of magha (January/February).»[140]

Ganesha Chaturthi[edit]

An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.[141] The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising the god’s visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when the idols (murtis) are immersed in the most convenient body of water.[142] Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.[143] He did so «to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them» in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra.[144] Because of Ganesha’s wide appeal as «the god for Everyman», Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.[145] Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[146]
Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.[147][148] The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.

Temples[edit]

The Morgaon temple, the chief Ashtavinyak temple

In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna).[149] As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper.[150] In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; aṣṭavināyaka; lit. «eight Ganesha (shrines)») in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore.[151] The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.

There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Siddhivinayak temple in Mumbai, Ganpatipule temple at Ganpatipule, Binkhambi Ganesh mandir in Kolhapur, Jai Vinayak temple in Jaigad, Ratnagiri, Wai in Maharashtra;
Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Andhra Pradesh; the Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple at Tiruchirapalli, Puliakulam Munthi Vinayagar Temple at Coimbatore[152] and Karpaga Vinayagar Temple in Pillaiyarpatti which is a town named after Ganesha in Tamil Nadu; Kottarakkara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala; Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Telangana.[153]

T. A. Gopinatha notes, «Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees … in a niche … in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples … the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen.»[154] Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including Southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu Valley),[155] and in several western countries.[156]

Rise to prominence[edit]

First appearance[edit]

An elephant–headed anthropomorphic figure on Indo-Greek coins from the 1st century BCE has been proposed by some scholars to be «incipient Ganesha», while others have suggested Ganesha may have been an emerging deity in India and southeast Asia around the 2nd century CE based on the evidence from archaeological excavations in Mathura and outside India.[159] First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with an elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd–3rd centuries CE).[160]

Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE.[161] Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of Kabul along with those of Surya and Shiva. It is dated to the 4th century. The second image found in Gardez, the Gardez Ganesha, has an inscription on Ganesha pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh. This is dated to the 5th century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century Gupta period.[162][163][164] Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th century.[163] An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century.[161] Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha’s history before the 5th century as follows:[161]

What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaṇeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand, there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaṇeśa’s Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity» before the fourth to fifth century A.D. … [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence [in ancient Brahmanic literature] of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.

The evidence for more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India.[161] Ganesha appears in China by the 6th century, states Brown,[165] and his artistic images in temple setting as «remover of obstacles» in South Asia appear by about 400 CE.[166] He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati’s son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of the common era.[167]

Possible influences[edit]

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:[168]

In this search for a historical origin for Gaṇeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition…. These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaṇeśa.

Thapan’s book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that «although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut.»[169]

The Pashupati seal (c. 2300 BCE — 2000 BCE) depicts 4 animals including an elephant around a deity who is claimed by some to be Shiva. Brown notes that this seal indicates the sacredness of elephants before Vedic period.[170] One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas).[171] In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[172] but who were easily propitiated.[173] The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, «He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering».[174] Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century.[175] According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.[176]

Vedic and epic literature[edit]

17th century RajasthanI manuscript of the Mahabharata depicting Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, who serves as the scribe

The title «Leader of the group» (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators.[177] While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.[178] In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it «clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only».[179] Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra,[180] who is given the epithet ‘gaṇapati‘, translated «Lord of the companies (of the Maruts).»[181] However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha.[182]

The Sangam period Tamil poet Avvaiyar (3rd century BCE), invokes Ganesha while preparing the invitation to the three Tamil Kingdoms for giving away in marriage of Angavay and Sangavay of Ceylon in marriage to the King of Tirucovalur (pp. 57–59).[183]

Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1)[184] and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1),[185] appeal to a deity as «the tusked one» (Dantiḥ), «elephant-faced» (Hastimukha), and «with a curved trunk» (Vakratuṇḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification.[186] The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane,[187] and a club,[188] is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says «we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin».[189] However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.[190] Thapan reports that these passages are «generally considered to have been interpolated». Dhavalikar says, «the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity».[191]

Ganesha does not appear in the Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata (1.1.75–79[a]) says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,[192] in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[193] The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition.[194] Ganesha’s association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa‘s dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation.[195] Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.[196] The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations.[197] A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām («Creator of Obstacles») in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.[198]

Puranic period[edit]

A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana: Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Devi (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).

Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas «defy precise chronological ordering», the more detailed narratives of Ganesha’s life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.[199] Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant’s head are in the later Puranas, which were composed of c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.[200]

In his survey of Ganesha’s rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:[201]

Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

Ganesha’s rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularised the «worship of the five forms» (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.[202] This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya.[203] Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalised the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

Scriptures[edit]

Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Hinduism, some Hindus chose Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.[204]

The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. «It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries», she says, «but was later interpolated.»[205] Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[206]

R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.[207] However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.[208] While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[209] Another highly regarded scripture in the Ganapatya tradition, the Sanskrit Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th century.[210][211]

The Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama are found in the Ganesha Purana.[212]

Beyond India and Hinduism[edit]

(clockwise from top) Ganesha in Tibet (as Maharakta), Nepal, Thailand, Japan (as Kangiten) and coat of arms of Salatiga, Indonesia.

Commercial and cultural contacts extended India’s influence in Western and Southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands.[213]

Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[214] From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[215] The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[216]

Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[217] Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of Philippines, Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences.[218] The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[219] In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[220]

Among the Indonesian, who predominantly profess Muslim faith, Ganesha is not worshipped, but seen as a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and education. Many Indonesian public universities feature Ganesha’s likeness in their grounds or logo. Blitar, Salatiga City, and Kediri Regency are among three local governments that include Ganesha in their regency/city official seals. Indonesia is the only country who featured Ganesha on her bill (20 thousand denomination, between 1998 and 2008), although it is no longer in circulation.

Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.[220] Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by King Vajiravudh of the Chakri dynasty who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace, Sanam Chandra Palace in Nakhon Pathom Province where he focused on his academic and literature works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts formally became prominent following the establishment of the Fine Arts Department where he took Ganesha as the seal. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand’s first prominent fine arts academy; the Silpakorn University.[221]

Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practised. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[222]

Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.[223] His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[224] As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.[225] In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.[226] Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.[227] A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag.[228] In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity.[229] Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing.[230] Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.[231] In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.[232]

The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha.[233] However, Ganesha is worshipped by some Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth, Kubera.[234] Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections and influence of Hinduism.[235] The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.[236] A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of its images.[233] Images of Ganesha appear in some Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[237]

See also[edit]

  • Gajasura
  • Cultural depictions of elephants

Explanatory notes[edit]

  1. ^ Bombay edition
  1. ^ For the human-headed form of Ganesha in:
    • Adhi Vinayaka temple near Koothanur, Tamil Nadu.[48]
    • Cambodia, see Brown 1991, p. 10
    • Nandrudayan Vinayaka Temple.[49]
    • Uthrapathiswaraswamy Temple.[50]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ Heras 1972, p. 58.
  2. ^ a b Getty 1936, p. 5.
  3. ^ «Ganesha getting ready to throw his lotus. Basohli miniature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Delhi. In the Mudgalapurāṇa (VII, 70), in order to kill the demon of egotism (Mamāsura) who had attacked him, Gaṇeśa Vighnarāja throws his lotus at him. Unable to bear the fragrance of the divine flower, the demon surrenders to Gaṇeśha.» For quotation of description of the work, see: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 73.
  4. ^ Ramachandra Rao 1992, p. 6.
  5. ^      
    • Brown 1991, p. 1 «Gaṇeśa is often said to be the most worshipped god in India.»
    • Getty 1936, p. 1 «Gaṇeśa, Lord of the Gaṇas, although among the latest deities to be admitted to the Brahmanic pantheon, was, and still is, the most universally adored of all the Hindu gods and his image is found in practically every part of India.»

  6. ^      
    • Ramachandra Rao 1992, p. 1
    • Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 1
    • Brown 1991, p. 1

  7. ^ https://m.timesofindia.com/world/us/street-in-new-york-named-ganesh-temple-street-after-prominent-hindu-temple/amp_articleshow/90638850.cms
  8. ^      
    • Chapter XVII, «The Travels Abroad», in: Nagar 1992, pp. 175–187. For a review of Ganesha’s geographic spread and popularity outside of India.
    • Getty 1936, pp. 37–38, For discussion of the spread of Ganesha worship to Nepal, Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, Burma, Siam, Indo-China, Java, Bali, Borneo, China, and Japan
    • Martin-Dubost 1997, pp. 311–320
    • Thapan 1997, p. 13
    • Apte 1965, pp. 2–3

  9. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 2.
  10. ^ For Ganesha’s role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary on Gaṇapati Upaniṣad, verse 12 in Saraswati 2004, p. 80
  11. ^ DeVito, Carole; DeVito, Pasquale (1994). India — Mahabharata. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminar Abroad 1994 (India). United States Educational Foundation in India. p. 4.
  12. ^ Heras 1972, p. 58
  13. ^ , Vigna means obstacles Nasha means destroy. These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings.
  14. ^ Narain, A.K. «Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon» in Brown 1991, p. 27
  15. ^ Gavin D., Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–18, 110–113. ISBN 978-0521438780.
  16. ^ Vasudha, Narayan (2009). Hinduism. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1435856202.
  17. ^ For history of the development of the gāṇapatya and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, «The Gāṇapatyas» in: Thapan 1997, pp. 176–213.
  18. ^ «Lord Ganesha – Symbolic description of Lord Ganesha | – Times of India». The Times of India. 4 April 2019. Archived from the original on 7 September 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
  19. ^ * Narain, A.K. «Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon». Brown 1991, pp. 21–22.
    • Apte 1965, p. 395.

  20. ^ For the derivation of the name and relationship with the gaṇas, see: Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 2
  21. ^ a b Apte 1965, p. 395.
  22. ^ The word gaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the gaṇeśasahasranāma. See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names Gaṇeśvaraḥ and Gaṇakrīḍaḥ in: Śāstri Khiste 1991, pp. 7–8.
  23. ^ Grimes 1995, pp. 17–19, 201.
  24. ^ Rigveda Mandala 2 Archived 2 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Hymn 2.23.1, Wikisource, Quote: गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥; For translation, see Grimes 1995, pp. 17–19
  25. ^
    • Oka 1913, p. 8 for source text of Amarakośa 1.38 as vināyako vighnarājadvaimāturagaṇādhipāḥ – apyekadantaherambalambodaragajānanāḥ.
    • Śāstri 1978 for text of Amarakośa versified as 1.1.38.

  26. ^ Y. Krishan, Gaṇeśa: Unravelling an Enigma, 1999, p. 6): «Pārvati who created an image of Gaṇeśa out of her bodily impurities but which became endowed with life after immersion in the sacred waters of the Gangā. Therefore he is said to have two mothers—Pārvati and Gangā and hence called dvaimātura and also Gāngeya.»
  27. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 6
  28. ^ a b Thapan 1997, p. 20
  29. ^ For the history of the aṣṭavināyaka sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see: Mate 1962, pp. 1–25
  30. ^ These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For the name Vighnesha, see: Courtright 1985, pp. 156, 213
  31. ^ a b For Krishan’s views on Ganesha’s dual nature see his quote: «Gaṇeśa has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as a grāmadevatā, he is vighnakartā, and as Gaṇeśa he is vighnahartā, a paurāṇic devatā.» (Krishan 1999, p. viii)
  32. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 367.
  33. ^ Narain, A.K. «Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon».Brown 1991, p. 25
  34. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 62
  35. ^ Myanmar-English Dictionary, Yangon: Dunwoody Press, 1993, ISBN 978-1881265474, archived from the original on 10 February 2010, retrieved 20 September 2010
  36. ^ Justin Thomas McDaniel (2013). The Lovelorn Ghost and the Magical Monk: Practicing Buddhism in Modern Thailand. Columbia University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0231153775.
  37. ^ Brown, Robert L. (1987), «A Note on the Recently Discovered Gaṇeśa Image from Palembang, Sumatra», Indonesia, 43 (43): 95–100, doi:10.2307/3351212, hdl:1813/53865, JSTOR 3351212
  38. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 176, 182, Note: some scholars suggest adoption of Ganesha by the late 6th century CE, see p. 192 footnote 7.
  39. ^ Brown 1991, p. 190.
  40. ^ John Clifford Holt (1991). Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press. pp. 6, 100, 180–181. ISBN 978-0195362466.
  41. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf, p. vii
  42. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, for a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrated with pictures.
    • Chapter X, «Development of the Iconography of Gaṇeśa«, in: Krishan 1999, pp. 87–100, for a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates.
    • Pal 1995, for a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography.

  43. ^ Brown 1991, p. 175
  44. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200).
  45. ^ Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art that is dated as c. 12th century. Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii.
  46. ^ Brown 1991, p. 176
  47. ^ See photograph 2, «Large Ganesh», in: Pal 1995, p. 16
  48. ^ «Adi Vinayaka — The Primordial Form of Ganesh». agasthiar.org. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  49. ^ «Vinayaka in unique form». The Hindu. 10 October 2003. Archived from the original on 1 May 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
  50. ^ Catlin, Amy; «Vātāpi Gaṇapatim»: Sculptural, Poetic, and Musical Texts in the Hymn to Gaṇeśa» in Brown 1991, pp. 146, 150
  51. ^ In:
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 197–198
    • photograph 9, «Ganesh images being taken for immersion», in: Pal 1995, pp. 22–23. For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession.
    • Pal 1995, p. 25, For two similar statues about to be immersed.

  52. ^ In:
    • Pal 1995, pp. 41–64. For many examples of Ganesha dancing.
    • Brown 1991, p. 183 For the popularity of the dancing form.

  53. ^ Four-armed Gaṇeśa. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: «On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, Gaṇeśa is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow dhoti and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute Gaṇeśa by joining their tiny feet together. Gaṇeśa counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk.»
  54. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 77
  55. ^ Brown 1991, p. 3
  56. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 78
  57. ^ Brown 1991, p. 76
  58. ^ Brown 1991, p. 77
  59. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 77–78
  60. ^ For creation of Ganesha from Shiva’s laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see Varaha Purana 23.17 as cited in Brown 1991, p. 77.
  61. ^ Getty 1936, p. 1.
  62. ^ Heras 1972, p. 29
  63. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. «Gaṇeśa as Metaphor». Brown 1991, pp. 92–94
  64. ^ «Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art» and Passim. Nagar 1992, p. 78
  65. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. «Gaṇeśa as Metaphor». Brown 1991, p. 76
  66. ^ For translation of Udara as «belly» see: Apte 1965, p. 268
  67. ^
    • Br. P. 2.3.42.34
    • Thapan 1997, p. 200, For a description of how a variant of this story is used in the Mudgala Purana 2.56.38–9

  68. ^ For an iconographic chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: Nagar 1992, pp. 191–195 Appendix I.
  69. ^ For history and prevalence of forms with various arms and the four-armed form as one of the standard types see: Krishan 1999, p. 89.
  70. ^
    • Krishan 1999, p. 89, For two-armed forms as an earlier development than four-armed forms.
    • Brown 1991, p. 103 Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in «Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism» that the presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date.

  71. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 120.
  72. ^
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 50–53, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.

  73. ^ Ganesha Purana
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202. For the Ganesha Purana references for Vāsuki around the neck and use of a serpent-throne.
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 51–52. For the story of wrapping Vāsuki around the neck and Śeṣa around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as Sarpagraiveyakāṅgādaḥ («Who has a serpent around his neck»), which refers to this standard iconographic element.

  74. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202. For the text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha’s sacred thread as the serpent Śeṣa.
    • Nagar 1992, p. 92. For the snake as a common type of yajñyopavīta for Ganesha.

  75. ^ * Nagar 1992, p. 81. tilaka with three horizontal lines.
    • the dhyānam in: Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.1. For Ganesa visualized as trinetraṁ (having three eyes).

  76. ^ * Nagar 1992, p. 81. For a citation to Ganesha Purana I.14.21–25 and For a citation to Padma Purana as prescribing the crescent for decoration of the forehead of Ganesha
    • Bailey 1995, pp. 198–199. For the translation of Ganesha Purana I.14, which includes a meditation form with the moon on forehead.

  77. ^
    • Nagar 1992, p. 81 For Bhālacandra as a distinct form worshipped.
    • Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.15. For the name Bhālacandra appearing in the Ganesha Sahasranama

  78. ^ a b Civarāman̲, Akilā (2014). Sri Ganesha Purana. Giri Trading Agency. ISBN 978-81-7950-629-5.
  79. ^ Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997). Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds. Franco-Indian Research. pp. 412–416. ISBN 978-81-900184-3-2.
  80. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, pp. 224–228
  81. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 228
  82. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 47–48, 78
  83. ^ Krishan 1981–1982, p. 49
  84. ^
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 48–49
    • Bailey 1995, p. 348. For the Ganesha Purana story of Mayūreśvara with the peacock mount (GP I.84.2–3)
    • Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, «Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism», in: Brown 1991, pp. 101–102.

  85. ^ * Nagar 1992. Preface.
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 231–244.

  86. ^ See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 144.
  87. ^ Citations to Matsya Purana 260.54, Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya XXVII, and Ganesha Purana 2.134–136 are provided by: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 231.
  88. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 232.
  89. ^ For Mūṣakavāhana see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  90. ^ For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: Grimes 1995, p. 86.
  91. ^ A Student’s Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification, by Michael Wilcockson, p. 117
  92. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 49–50
  93. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 231
    • Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature», in: Brown 1991, p. 73. For mention of the interpretation that «the rat is ‘the animal that finds its way to every place,'»

  94. ^ «Lord of Removal of Obstacles», a common name, appears in the title of Courtright’s Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For equivalent Sanskrit names Vighneśvara and Vighnarāja, see: Mate 1962, p. 136
  95. ^ «Ganesha: The Remover of Obstacles». 31 May 2016.
  96. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 136
  97. ^ For Dhavilkar’s views on Ganesha’s shifting role, see Dhavalikar, M.K. «Gaṇeśa: Myth and reality» in Brown 1991, p. 49
  98. ^ Brown 1991, p. 6
  99. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 5.
  100. ^ Apte 1965, p. 703.
  101. ^ Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.
  102. ^ Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204–206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads Buddhipriya, Bailey translates Granter-of-lakhs.
  103. ^ Practical Sanskrit Dictionary By Arthur Anthony McDonell; p. 187 (priya); Published 2004; Motilal Banarsidass Publ; ISBN 8120820002
  104. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 60–70p. discusses Ganesha as «Buddhi’s Husband».
  105. ^ Grimes, p. 77.
  106. ^ Chinmayananda 1987, p. 127, In Chinmayananda’s numbering system, this is upamantra 8..
  107. ^ For examples of both, see: Grimes 1995, pp. 79–80
  108. ^ a b Tantra Unveiled: Seducing the Forces of Matter & Spirit By Rajmani Tigunait; Contributor Deborah Willoughby; Published 1999; Himalayan Institute Press; p. 83; ISBN 0893891584
  109. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 253.
  110. ^ Chinmayananda 1987, p. 127, In Chinmayananda’s numbering system this is part of upamantra 7. ‘You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called «Muladhara»‘..
  111. ^ This work is reproduced and described in Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 51, which describes it as follows: «This square shaped miniature shows us in a Himalayan landscape the god Śiva sweetly pouring water from his kamaṇḍalu on the head of baby Gaṇeśa. Seated comfortably on the meadow, Pārvatī balances with her left hand the baby Gaņeśa with four arms with a red body and naked, adorned only with jewels, tiny anklets and a golden chain around his stomach, a necklace of pearls, bracelets and armlets.»
  112. ^ In:
    • Nagar 1992, pp. 7–14. For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories.
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 41–82. Chapter 2, «Stories of Birth According to the Purāṇas«.

  113. ^ Shiva Purana IV. 17.47–57. Matsya Purana 154.547.
  114. ^ Linga Purana
  115. ^ Varāha Purana 23.18–59.
  116. ^ For summary of Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda, 10.8–37, see: Nagar 1992, pp. 11–13.
  117. ^ Melton, J. Gordon (13 September 2011). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 325–. ISBN 978-1598842050.
  118. ^ For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Thapan 1997, p. 300.
  119. ^ Khokar & Saraswati 2005 p.4.
  120. ^ Brown 1991, p. 79.
  121. ^ Oka 1913, p. 38.
  122. ^ For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«. Brown 1991, pp. 115–140
  123. ^ In:
    • Getty 1936, p. 33. «According to ancient tradition, Gaṇeśa was a Brahmacārin, that is, an unmarried deity; but legend gave him two consorts, personifications of Wisdom (Buddhi) and Success (Siddhi).»
    • Krishan 1999, p. 63. «… in the smārta or orthodox traditional religious beliefs, Gaṇeśa is a bachelor or brahmacārī«

  124. ^ For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 126–129.
  125. ^ For a review of associations with Buddhi, Siddhi, Riddhi, and other figures, and the statement «In short the spouses of Gaṇeśa are the personifications of his powers, manifesting his functional features…», see: Krishan 1999, p. 62.
  126. ^ For single consort or a nameless daşi (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, p. 115.
  127. ^ For associations with Śarda and Sarasvati and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 131–132.
  128. ^ For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 132–135.
  129. ^ For discussion of the Kala Bou, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 124–125.
  130. ^ For statement regarding sons, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, p. 130.
  131. ^ In:
    • Cohen, Lawrence. «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«. Brown 1991, p. 130.
    • Thapan 1997, p. 15–16, 230, 239, 242, 251.

  132. ^ Krishan 1981–1982, pp. 1–3
  133. ^ K.N. Somayaji, Concept of Ganesha, p. 1 as quoted in Krishan 1999, pp. 2–3
  134. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 38
  135. ^ For worship of Ganesha by «followers of all sects and denominations, Saivites, Vaisnavites, Buddhists, and Jainas» see Krishan 1981–1982, p. 285
  136. ^ Grimes 1995, p. 27
  137. ^ The term modaka applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 204.
  138. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 369.
  139. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 95–99
  140. ^ Thapan 1997 p. 215
  141. ^ For the fourth waxing day in Māgha being dedicated to Ganesa (Gaṇeśa-caturthī) see: (Bhattacharyya 1956)., «Festivals and Sacred Days», in: Bhattacharyya, volume IV, p. 483.
  142. ^ The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra; Edited By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, pp. 76–94 («The Ganesh Festival in Maharashtra: Some Observations» by Paul B. Courtright); 1988; SUNY Press; ISBN 088706664X
  143. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf, p. 150.
  144. ^ In:
    • (Brown 1991, p. 9).
    • Thapan 1997, p. 225 For Tilak’s role in converting the private family festivals to a public event in support of Indian nationalism.

  145. ^ In:
    • Momin, A.R., The Legacy of G.S. Ghurye: A Centennial Festschrift, p. 95.
    • Brown 1991, p. 9. For Ganesha’s appeal as «the god for Everyman» as a motivation for Tilak.

  146. ^ For Tilak as the first to use large public images in maṇḍapas (pavilions or tents) see: Thapan 1997, p. 225.
  147. ^ For Ganesh Chaturthi as the most popular festival in Maharashtra, see: Thapan 1997, p. 226.
  148. ^ «Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting». Courtright 1985, p. 202–247.
  149. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 92
  150. ^ Brown 1991, p. 3
  151. ^ Grimes 1995, p. 110–112
  152. ^ «Major Ganesha Temples around the world». Tamil Minutes. 31 August 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  153. ^ Krishna 1985, p. 91–92
  154. ^ T.A. Gopinatha; Elements of Hindu Iconography, p. 47–48 as quoted in Krishan 1999, p. 2
  155. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 147–158
  156. ^ «Ganesha Temples worldwide». Archived from the original on 17 December 2007.
  157. ^ The inscription says that this «great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka» was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala. For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M.K., «Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality», in: Brown 1991, pp. 50, 63.
  158. ^ Dhavalikar, M. K. (1971), «A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan», East and West, 21 (3/4): 331–336, JSTOR 29755703
  159. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 6–7
  160. ^ Kumar, Ajit (2007). «A Unique Early Historic Terracotta Ganesa Image from Pal, District Aurangabad, Maharashtra». Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress, Vol XI. (2006–2007): 89–91.
  161. ^ a b c d Brown 1991, pp. 19–21, chapter by AK Narain.
  162. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 4
  163. ^ a b Brown 1991, pp. 50–55, 120.
  164. ^ Raman Sukumar (2003). The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0198026730.
  165. ^ Brown 1991, p. 2.
  166. ^ Brown 1991, p. 8.
  167. ^ Bailey 1995, p. ix.
  168. ^ Courtright 1985 p. 10–11.
  169. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 75.
  170. ^ Brown 1991, p. 33
  171. ^ In:
    • Passim. Thapan 1997.
    • Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa’s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 70–72.

  172. ^ Aitareya Brāhmana, I, 21.
  173. ^ Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. p. 147–148.
  174. ^ Krishan 1999, p. vii.
  175. ^ For a discussion of early depiction of elephant-headed figures in art, see Krishan 1981–1982, pp. 287–290 or Krishna 1985, pp. 31–32
  176. ^ Ellawala 1969, p. 159.
  177. ^ Wilson, H. H. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. II); ISBN 8171101380 (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | 2.23.1; «We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages.»
  178. ^ In:
    • Nagar 1992, p. 3.
    • Mate 1962, p. 1.

  179. ^ Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 69. Bṛhaspati is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.
  180. ^ Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 69–70.
  181. ^ Wilson, H.H. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: Maṇḍalas 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K.L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. IV); ISBN 8171101380 (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092) ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; «Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages».
  182. ^ For use of RV verses in recent Ganapatya literature, see Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature» in Brown 1991, p. 70
  183. ^ Edward Jewitt Robinson (1873). Tamil Wisdom; Traditions Concerning Hindu Sages, and Selections from their writings. London: Wesleyan Conference Office.
  184. ^ The verse : «tát karāţāya vidmahe | hastimukhāya dhîmahi | tán no dántî pracodáyāt||»
  185. ^ The verse: » tát púruṣâya vidmahe vakratuṇḍāya dhîmahi| tán no dántî pracodáyāt||»
  186. ^ For text of Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā 2.9.1 and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka 10.1 and identification by Sāyaṇa in his commentary on the āraṇyaka, see: Rocher, Ludo, «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature» in Brown 1991, p. 70.
  187. ^ Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2001). «Sugarcane Gaṇapati». East and West, Rome. 51 (3/4): 379–84. JSTOR 29757520. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016.
  188. ^ Taittiriya Aranyaka, X, 1, 5.
  189. ^ Heras 1972, p. 28.
  190. ^ In:
    • Krishan 1981–1982, p. 290
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 12–15. For arguments documenting interpolation into the Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā

  191. ^
    • Thapan, p. 101. For interpolation into the Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka.
    • Dhavalikar, M.K. «Gaṇeśa: Myth and reality» in Brown 1991, pp. 56–57. For Dhavilkar’s views on Ganesha’s in early Literature.

  192. ^ Rocher, Ludo «Ganesa’s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown, pp. 71–72.
  193. ^ Mahābhārata Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.
  194. ^ For a statement that «Fifty-nine manuscripts of the Ādiparvan were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story of Gaṇeśa acting as the scribe for writing the Mahābhārata occurs in 37 manuscripts», see: Krishan 1999, p. 31, note 4.
  195. ^ Brown, p. 4.
  196. ^ Winternitz, Moriz. «Gaṇeśa in the Mahābhārata«. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 80.
  197. ^ For interpolations of the term vināyaka see: Krishan 1999, p. 29.
  198. ^ For reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām and translation as «Creator of Obstacles», see: Krishan 1999, p. 29.
  199. ^ Brown 1991, p. 183.
  200. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 103.
  201. ^ Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 73.
  202. ^ * (Courtright 1985, p. 163) For Dating of the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins.
    • Bhattacharyya, S., «Indian Hymnology», in: Bhattacharyya 1956, p. 470. Volume VI. For the «five» divinities (pañcādevatā) becoming «the major deities» in general, and their listing as Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Ganesha.

  203. ^      
    • Grimes 1995, p. 162.
    • Pal 1995, p. ix.

  204. ^ Thapan 1997, pp. 196–197. Addresses the pañcāyatana in the Smārta tradition and the relationship of the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana to it.
  205. ^ For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see: Thapan 1997, pp. 30–33.
  206. ^ Preston, Lawrence W., «Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to Gaṇeśa«, in: N.K. Wagle, ed., Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p. 103.
  207. ^ R.C. Hazra, «The Gaṇeśa Purāṇa«, Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute (1951); 79–99.
  208. ^ Phyllis Granoff, «Gaṇeśa as Metaphor», in Brown 1991, pp. 94–95, note 2.
  209. ^ Thapan 1997, pp. 30–33.
  210. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 252.
  211. ^ Grimes 1995, pp. 21–22.
  212. ^ Bailey 1995, pp. 258–269.
  213. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 175.
  214. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 174.
  215. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 170.
  216. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 152.
  217. ^ Getty 1936, p. 55.
  218. ^ Getty 1936, p. 55–66.
  219. ^ Getty 1936, p. 52.
  220. ^ a b Brown 1991, p. 182.
  221. ^ วัฒนะมหาตม์, กิตติ (November 2011). «พระคเณศไม่ใช่เทพศิลปะ รัชกาลที่ 6 ทรงทำให้เป็นเทพศิลปะ» [Ganesh was not the god of art. King Vajiravudh was the one who made him be one.]. ศิลปวัฒนธรรม (Arts and Culture) (in Thai) (November 2011). Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  222. ^ In:
    • Nagar 1992, p. 175.
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 311.

  223. ^ Getty 1936, pp. 37–45.
  224. ^ Getty 1936, p. 37.
  225. ^ Getty 1936, p. 38.
  226. ^ Getty 1936, p. 40.
  227. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 185.
  228. ^ Wayman, Alex (2006). Chanting the Names of Manjushri. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: p. 76. ISBN 8120816536
  229. ^ Ganesha
    • Getty 1936, p. 42.
    • Nagar 1992, p. 185.

  230. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 185–186.
  231. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 311.
  232. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 313.
  233. ^ a b Krishan 1999, p. 121.
  234. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 157.
  235. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 151, 158, 162, 164, 253.
  236. ^ Krishna 1985, p. 122.
  237. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 158.

General references[edit]

  • Pal, Pratapaditya (1995). Ganesh, the Benevolent. the University of Michigan: Marg Publications. ISBN 9788185026312.
  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-8120805675.
  • Bailey, Greg (1995). Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index. Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3447036474.
  • Bhattacharyya, Haridas, ed. (1956). The Cultural Heritage of India. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Four volumes.
  • Brown, Robert (1991), Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, Albany: State University of New York, ISBN 978-0791406571
  • Chinmayananda, Swami (1987), Glory of Ganesha, Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, ISBN 978-8175973589
  • Courtright, Paul B. (1985), Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195057423
  • Ellawala, H (1969), Social History of Early Ceylon, Colombo: Department of Cultural Affairs.
  • Getty, Alice (1936). Gaṇeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God (1992 reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-8121503778.
  • Grimes, John A. (1995), Ganapati: Song of the Self, SUNY Series in Religious Studies, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791424407
  • Heras, H. (1972), The Problem of Ganapati, Delhi: Indological Book House
  • Khokar, Ashish; Saraswati, S. (2005), Ganesha-Karttikeya, New Delhi: Rupa and Co, ISBN 978-8129107763
  • Krishan, Yuvraj (1981–1982), «The Origins of Gaṇeśa«, Artibus Asiae, Artibus Asiae Publishers, 43 (4): 285–301, doi:10.2307/3249845, JSTOR 3249845
  • Krishan, Yuvraj (1999), Gaṇeśa: Unravelling An Enigma, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120814134
  • Krishna, Murthy, K. (1985), Mythical Animals in Indian Art, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-0391032873
  • Martin-Dubost, Paul (1965), Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds, the University of Michigan: Franco-Indian Research, ISBN 9788190018432
  • Mate, M.S. (1962), Temples and Legends of Maharashtra, Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, OCLC 776939647
  • Metcalf, Thomas R.; Metcalf, Barbara Daly, A Concise History of India, ISBN 978-0521630276
  • Nagar, Shanti Lal (1992). The Cult of Vinayaka. New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-7076-044-3.
  • Oka, Krishnaji Govind (1913), The Nāmalingānuśāsana (Amarakosha) of Amarasimha: with the Commentary (Amarakoshodghāṭana) of Kshīrasvāmin, Poona: Law Printing Press, retrieved 14 September 2007.
  • Ramachandra Rao, S.K. (1992), The Compendium on Gaṇeśa, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, ISBN 978-8170308287
  • Saraswati, Swami Tattvavidananda (2004), Gaṇapati Upaniṣad, Delhi: D.K. Printworld Ltd., ISBN 978-8124602652
  • Śāstri Khiste, Baṭukanātha (1991), Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita, Vārāṇasī: Prācya Prakāśana. Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  • Śāstri, Hargovinda (1978), Amarkoṣa with Hindi commentary, Vārānasi: Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office
  • Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 978-8173041952.

External links[edit]

  • Ganesh: Symbol and presence
Ganesha

God of New Beginnings, Wisdom and Luck
Remover of Obstacles[1][2]
Supreme God (Ganapatya)

Attired in an orange dhoti, an elephant-headed man sits on a large lotus. His body is red in colour and he wears various golden necklaces and bracelets and a snake around his neck. On the three points of his crown, budding lotuses have been fixed. He holds in his two right hands the rosary (lower hand) and a cup filled with three modakas (round yellow sweets), a fourth modaka held by the curving trunk is just about to be tasted. In his two left hands, he holds a lotus in the upper hand and an axe in the lower one, with its handle leaning against his shoulder.

Basohli miniature, c. 1730. National Museum, New Delhi.[3]

Affiliation Deva, Brahman (Ganapatya), Saguna Brahman (Panchayatana puja)
Abode • Mount Kailash (with parents)
• Svānandaloka
Mantra Oṃ Ekadantaya Vidmahe,Vakrathundaya Dhimahi,Thanno Danthi Prachodhayat
Oṃ Shri Gaṇeśāya Namaḥ
Oṃ Gaṃ Gaṇapataye Namaḥ
Weapon Paraśu (axe), pāśa (noose), aṅkuśa (elephant goad)
Symbols Swastika, Om, Modak
Mount Mouse
Texts Ganesha Purana, Mudgala Purana, Ganapati Atharvashirsa
Gender Male
Festivals Ganesh Chaturthi, Diwali
Personal information
Parents
  • Shiva (father)
  • Parvati (mother)
Siblings Kartikeya (brother)
Consort Riddhi and Siddhi or celibate
Equivalents
Buddhists equivalent Kangiten

Ganesha (Sanskrit: गणेश, IAST: Gaṇeśa), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon[4] and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India.[5] Hindu denominations worship him regardless of affiliations.[6] Devotion to Ganesha is widely diffused and extends to Jains and Buddhists and includes Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Myanmar, China, and Japan and in countries with large ethnic Hindus populations including United States,[7] Fiji, Guyana, Mauritius, and Trinidad and Tobago.[8]

Although Ganesha has many attributes, he is readily identified by his elephant head.[9] He is widely revered, more specifically, as the remover of obstacles and thought to bring good luck;[10][11] the patron of arts and sciences; and the deva of intellect and wisdom.[12] As the god of beginnings, he is honoured at the start of rites and ceremonies. Ganesha is also invoked as a patron of letters and learning during writing sessions.[2][13] Several texts relate mythological anecdotes associated with his birth and exploits.

While scholars differ about his origins dating him between 1st century BCE and 2nd century CE, Ganesha was well established by the 4th and 5th centuries CE, during the Gupta period and had inherited traits from Vedic and pre-Vedic precursors.[14] Hindu mythology identifies him as the son of Parvati and Shiva of the Shaivism tradition, but he is a pan-Hindu god found in its various traditions.[15][16] In the Ganapatya tradition of Hinduism, Ganesha is the Supreme Being.[17] The principal texts on Ganesha include the Ganesha Purana, the Mudgala Purana and the Ganapati Atharvasirsha.

Etymology and other names[edit]

Ganesha has been ascribed many other titles and epithets, including Ganapati (Ganpati), Vighneshvara, and Pillaiyar. The Hindu title of respect Shri (Sanskrit: श्री; IAST: śrī; also spelled Sri or Shree) is often added before his name.[18]

The name Ganesha is a Sanskrit compound, joining the words gana (gaṇa), meaning a ‘group, multitude, or categorical system’ and isha (īśa), meaning ‘lord or master’.[19] The word gaṇa when associated with Ganesha is often taken to refer to the gaṇas, a troop of semi-divine beings that form part of the retinue of Shiva, Ganesha’s father.[20] The term more generally means a category, class, community, association, or corporation.[21] Some commentators interpret the name «Lord of the Gaṇas» to mean «Lord of Hosts» or «Lord of created categories», such as the elements.[22] Ganapati (गणपति; gaṇapati), a synonym for Ganesha, is a compound composed of gaṇa, meaning «group», and pati, meaning «ruler» or «lord».[21] Though the earliest mention of the word Ganapati is found in hymn 2.23.1 of the 2nd-millennium BCE Rigveda, it is however uncertain that the Vedic term referred specifically to Ganesha.[23][24] The Amarakosha,[25] an early Sanskrit lexicon, lists eight synonyms of Ganesha: Vinayaka, Vighnarāja (equivalent to Vighnesha), Dvaimātura (one who has two mothers),[26] Gaṇādhipa (equivalent to Ganapati and Ganesha), Ekadanta (one who has one tusk), Heramba, Lambodara (one who has a pot belly, or, literally, one who has a hanging belly), and Gajanana (gajānana); having the face of an elephant.[27]

Vinayaka (विनायक; vināyaka) or Binayaka is a common name for Ganesha that appears in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] This name is reflected in the naming of the eight famous Ganesha temples in Maharashtra known as the Ashtavinayak (Marathi: अष्टविनायक, aṣṭavināyaka).[29] The names Vighnesha (विघ्नेश; vighneśa) and Vighneshvara (विघ्नेश्वर; vighneśvara) (Lord of Obstacles)[30] refers to his primary function in Hinduism as the master and remover of obstacles (vighna).[31]

A prominent name for Ganesha in the Tamil language is Pillai (Tamil: பிள்ளை) or Pillaiyar (பிள்ளையார்).[32] A.K. Narain differentiates these terms by saying that pillai means a «child» while pillaiyar means a «noble child». He adds that the words pallu, pella, and pell in the Dravidian family of languages signify «tooth or tusk», also «elephant tooth or tusk».[33] Anita Raina Thapan notes that the root word pille in the name Pillaiyar might have originally meant «the young of the elephant», because the Pali word pillaka means «a young elephant».[34]

In the Burmese language, Ganesha is known as Maha Peinne (မဟာပိန္နဲ, pronounced [məhà pèiɰ̃né]), derived from Pali Mahā Wināyaka (မဟာဝိနာယက).[35] The widespread name of Ganesha in Thailand is Phra Phikanet.[36] The earliest images and mention of Ganesha names as a major deity in present-day Indonesia,[37] Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam date from the 7th and 8th centuries,[38] and these mirror Indian examples of the 5th century or earlier.[39] In Sri Lankan Singhala Buddhist areas, he is known as Gana deviyo, and revered along with Buddha, Vishnu, Skanda and others.[40]

Iconography[edit]

Ganesha is a popular figure in Indian art.[41] Unlike those of some deities, representations of Ganesha show wide variations and distinct patterns changing over time.[42] He may be portrayed standing, dancing, heroically taking action against demons, playing with his family as a boy, sitting down on an elevated seat, or engaging in a range of contemporary situations.

Ganesha images were prevalent in many parts of India by the 6th century CE.[43] The 13th-century statue pictured is typical of Ganesha statuary from 900 to 1200, after Ganesha had been well-established as an independent deity with his own sect. This example features some of Ganesha’s common iconographic elements. A virtually identical statue has been dated between 973 and 1200 by Paul Martin-Dubost,[44] and another similar statue is dated c. 12th century by Pratapaditya Pal.[45] Ganesha has the head of an elephant and a big belly. This statue has four arms, which is common in depictions of Ganesha. He holds his own broken tusk in his lower-right hand and holds a delicacy, which he samples with his trunk, in his lower-left hand. The motif of Ganesha turning his trunk sharply to his left to taste a sweet in his lower-left hand is a particularly archaic feature.[46] A more primitive statue in one of the Ellora Caves with this general form has been dated to the 7th century.[47] Details of the other hands are difficult to make out on the statue shown. In the standard configuration, Ganesha typically holds an axe or a goad in one upper arm and a pasha (noose) in the other upper arm. In rare instances, he may be depicted with a human head.[note 1]

The influence of this old constellation of iconographic elements can still be seen in contemporary representations of Ganesha. In one modern form, the only variation from these old elements is that the lower-right hand does not hold the broken tusk but is turned towards the viewer in a gesture of protection or fearlessness (Abhaya mudra).[51] The same combination of four arms and attributes occurs in statues of Ganesha dancing, which is a very popular theme.[52]

Common attributes[edit]

A typical four-armed form. Miniature of Nurpur school (circa 1810)[53]

Ganesha has been represented with the head of an elephant since the early stages of his appearance in Indian art.[54] Puranic myths provide many explanations for how he got his elephant head.[55] One of his popular forms, Heramba-Ganapati, has five elephant heads, and other less-common variations in the number of heads are known.[56] While some texts say that Ganesha was born with an elephant head, he acquires the head later in most stories.[57] The most recurrent motif in these stories is that Ganesha was created by Parvati using clay to protect her and Shiva beheaded him when Ganesha came between Shiva and Parvati. Shiva then replaced Ganesha’s original head with that of an elephant.[58] Details of the battle and where the replacement head came from vary from source to source.[59] Another story says that Ganesha was created directly by Shiva’s laughter. Because Shiva considered Ganesha too alluring, he gave him the head of an elephant and a protruding belly.[60]

Ganesha’s earliest name was Ekadanta (One Tusked), referring to his single whole tusk, the other being broken.[61] Some of the earliest images of Ganesha show him holding his broken tusk.[62] The importance of this distinctive feature is reflected in the Mudgala Purana, which states that the name of Ganesha’s second incarnation is Ekadanta.[63] Ganesha’s protruding belly appears as a distinctive attribute in his earliest statuary, which dates to the Gupta period (4th to 6th centuries).[64] This feature is so important that according to the Mudgala Purana, two different incarnations of Ganesha use names based on it: Lambodara (Pot Belly, or, literally, Hanging Belly) and Mahodara (Great Belly).[65] Both names are Sanskrit compounds describing his belly (IAST: udara).[66] The Brahmanda Purana says that Ganesha has the name Lambodara because all the universes (i.e., cosmic eggs; IAST: brahmāṇḍas) of the past, present, and future are present in him.[67]

The number of Ganesha’s arms varies; his best-known forms have between two and sixteen arms.[68] Many depictions of Ganesha feature four arms, which is mentioned in Puranic sources and codified as a standard form in some iconographic texts.[69] His earliest images had two arms.[70] Forms with 14 and 20 arms appeared in Central India during the 9th and the 10th centuries.[71] The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography and appears in many forms.[72] According to the Ganesha Purana, Ganesha wrapped the serpent Vasuki around his neck.[73] Other depictions of snakes include use as a sacred thread (IAST: yajñyopavīta)[74] wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Upon Ganesha’s forehead may be a third eye or the sectarian mark (IAST: tilaka), which consists of three horizontal lines.[75] The Ganesha Purana prescribes a tilaka mark as well as a crescent moon on the forehead.[76] A distinct form of Ganesha called Bhalachandra (IAST: bhālacandra; «Moon on the Forehead») includes that iconographic element.[77]

Ganesha is often described as red in colour.[78] Specific colours are associated with certain forms.[79] Many examples of color associations with specific meditation forms are prescribed in the Sritattvanidhi, a treatise on Hindu iconography. For example, white is associated with his representations as Heramba-Ganapati and Rina-Mochana-Ganapati (Ganapati Who Releases from Bondage).[80] Ekadanta-Ganapati is visualised as blue during meditation in that form.[81]

Vahanas[edit]

Ganesha on his vahana mooshika the rat, c. 1820

The earliest Ganesha images are without a vahana (mount/vehicle).[82] Of the eight incarnations of Ganesha described in the Mudgala Purana, Ganesha uses a mouse (shrew) in five of them, a lion in his incarnation as Vakratunda, a peacock in his incarnation as Vikata, and Shesha, the divine serpent, in his incarnation as Vighnaraja.[83] Mohotkata uses a lion, Mayūreśvara uses a peacock, Dhumraketu uses a horse, and Gajanana uses a mouse, in the four incarnations of Ganesha listed in the Ganesha Purana. Jain depictions of Ganesha show his vahana variously as a mouse, elephant, tortoise, ram, or peacock.[84]

Ganesha is often shown riding on or attended by a mouse, shrew or rat.[85] Martin-Dubost says that the rat began to appear as the principal vehicle in sculptures of Ganesha in central and western India during the 7th century; the rat was always placed close to his feet.[86] The mouse as a mount first appears in written sources in the Matsya Purana and later in the Brahmananda Purana and Ganesha Purana, where Ganesha uses it as his vehicle in his last incarnation.[87] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa includes a meditation verse on Ganesha that describes the mouse appearing on his flag.[88] The names Mūṣakavāhana (mouse-mount) and Ākhuketana (rat-banner) appear in the Ganesha Sahasranama.[89]

The mouse is interpreted in several ways. According to Grimes, «Many, if not most of those who interpret Gaṇapati‘s mouse, do so negatively; it symbolizes tamoguṇa as well as desire».[90] Along these lines, Michael Wilcockson says it symbolises those who wish to overcome desires and be less selfish.[91] Krishan notes that the rat is destructive and a menace to crops. The Sanskrit word mūṣaka (mouse) is derived from the root mūṣ (stealing, robbing). It was essential to subdue the rat as a destructive pest, a type of vighna (impediment) that needed to be overcome. According to this theory, showing Ganesha as master of the rat demonstrates his function as Vigneshvara (Lord of Obstacles) and gives evidence of his possible role as a folk grāma-devatā (village deity) who later rose to greater prominence.[92] Martin-Dubost notes a view that the rat is a symbol suggesting that Ganesha, like the rat, penetrates even the most secret places.[93]

Features[edit]

Heramba-Ganesha with consort, 18th century Nepal

Removal of obstacles[edit]

Ganesha is Vighneshvara (Vighnaraja, Marathi – Vighnaharta), the Lord of Obstacles, both of a material and spiritual order.[94] He is popularly worshipped as a remover of obstacles, though traditionally he also places obstacles in the path of those who need to be checked. Hence, he is often worshipped by the people before they begin anything new.[95] Paul Courtright says that Ganesha’s dharma and his raison d’être is to create and remove obstacles.[96]

Krishan notes that some of Ganesha’s names reflect shadings of multiple roles that have evolved over time.[31] Dhavalikar ascribes the quick ascension of Ganesha in the Hindu pantheon, and the emergence of the Ganapatyas, to this shift in emphasis from vighnakartā (obstacle-creator) to vighnahartā (obstacle-averter).[97] However, both functions continue to be vital to his character.[98]

Buddhi (Intelligence)[edit]

Ganesha is considered to be the Lord of letters and learning.[99] In Sanskrit, the word buddhi is an active noun that is variously translated as intelligence, wisdom, or intellect.[100] The concept of buddhi is closely associated with the personality of Ganesha, especially in the Puranic period, when many stories stress his cleverness and love of intelligence. One of Ganesha’s names in the Ganesha Purana and the Ganesha Sahasranama is Buddhipriya.[101] This name also appears in a list of 21 names at the end of the Ganesha Sahasranama that Ganesha says are especially important.[102] The word priya can mean «fond of», and in a marital context it can mean «lover» or «husband»,[103] so the name may mean either «Fond of Intelligence» or «Buddhi’s Husband».[104]

Om[edit]

Ganesha, Chola period, early 13th century.

Ganesha is identified with the Hindu mantra Om. The term oṃkārasvarūpa (Om is his form), when identified with Ganesha, refers to the notion that he personifies the primal sound.[105] The Ganapati Atharvashirsa attests to this association. Chinmayananda translates the relevant passage as follows:[106]

(O Lord Ganapati!) You are (the Trimurti) Brahma, Vishnu, and Mahesa. You are Indra. You are fire [Agni] and air [Vāyu]. You are the sun [Sūrya] and the moon [Chandrama]. You are Brahman. You are (the three worlds) Bhuloka [earth], Antariksha-loka [space], and Swargaloka [heaven]. You are Om. (That is to say, You are all this).

Some devotees see similarities between the shape of Ganesha’s body in iconography and the shape of Om in the Devanāgarī and Tamil scripts.[107]

First chakra[edit]

According to Kundalini yoga, Ganesha resides in the first chakra, called Muladhara (mūlādhāra). Mula means «original, main»; adhara means «base, foundation». The muladhara chakra is the principle on which the manifestation or outward expansion of primordial Divine Force rests.[108] This association is also attested to in the Ganapati Atharvashirsa. Courtright translates this passage as follows: «You continually dwell in the sacral plexus at the base of the spine [mūlādhāra cakra].»[109] Thus, Ganesha has a permanent abode in every being at the Muladhara.[110] Ganesha holds, supports and guides all other chakras, thereby «governing the forces that propel the wheel of life».[108]

Family and consorts[edit]

Though Ganesha is popularly held to be the son of Shiva and Parvati, the Puranic texts give different versions about his birth.[112] In some he was created by Parvati,[113] or by Shiva[114] or created by Shiva and Parvati,[115] in another he appeared mysteriously and was discovered by Shiva and Parvati[116] or he was born from the elephant headed goddess Malini after she drank Parvati’s bath water that had been thrown in the river.[117]

The family includes his brother, the god of war, Kartikeya, who is also called Skanda and Murugan.[118] Regional differences dictate the order of their births. In northern India, Skanda is generally said to be the elder, while in the south, Ganesha is considered the firstborn.[119] In northern India, Skanda was an important martial deity from about 500 BCE to about 600 CE, after which worship of him declined significantly. As Skanda fell, Ganesha rose. Several stories tell of sibling rivalry between the brothers[120] and may reflect sectarian tensions.[121]

Ganesha’s marital status, the subject of considerable scholarly review, varies widely in mythological stories.[122] One pattern of myths identifies Ganesha as an unmarried brahmachari.[123] This view is common in southern India and parts of northern India.[124] Another popularly-accepted mainstream pattern associates him with the concepts of Buddhi (intellect), Siddhi (spiritual power), and Riddhi (prosperity); these qualities are personified as goddesses, said to be Ganesha’s wives.[125] He also may be shown with a single consort or a nameless servant (Sanskrit: daşi).[126] Another pattern connects Ganesha with the goddess of culture and the arts, Sarasvati or Śarda (particularly in Maharashtra).[127] He is also associated with the goddess of luck and prosperity, Lakshmi.[128] Another pattern, mainly prevalent in the Bengal region, links Ganesha with the banana tree, Kala Bo.[129]

The Shiva Purana says that Ganesha had begotten two sons: Kşema (safety) and Lābha (profit). In northern Indian variants of this story, the sons are often said to be Śubha (auspiciousness) and Lābha.[130] The 1975 Hindi film Jai Santoshi Maa shows Ganesha married to Riddhi and Siddhi and having a daughter named Santoshi Ma, the goddess of satisfaction. This story has no Puranic basis, but Anita Raina Thapan and Lawrence Cohen cite Santoshi Ma’s cult as evidence of Ganesha’s continuing evolution as a popular deity.[131]

Worship and festivals[edit]

Ganesha is worshipped on many religious and secular occasions, especially at the beginning of ventures such as buying a vehicle or starting a business.[132] K.N Soumyaji says, «there can hardly be a [Hindu] home [in India] which does not house an idol of Ganapati. … Ganapati, being the most popular deity in India, is worshipped by almost all castes and in all parts of the country».[133] Devotees believe that if Ganesha is propitiated, he grants success, prosperity and protection against adversity.[134]

Ganesha is a non-sectarian deity. Hindus of all denominations invoke him at the beginning of prayers, important undertakings, and religious ceremonies.[135] Dancers and musicians, particularly in southern India, begin art performances such as the Bharatanatyam dance with a prayer to Ganesha.[78] Mantras such as Om Shri Gaṇeshāya Namah (Om, salutation to the Illustrious Ganesha) are often used. One of the most famous mantras associated with Ganesha is Om Gaṃ Ganapataye Namah (Om, Gaṃ, Salutation to the Lord of Hosts).[136]

Devotees offer Ganesha sweets such as modaka and small sweet balls called laddus. He is often shown carrying a bowl of sweets, called a modakapātra.[137] Because of his identification with the color red, he is often worshipped with red sandalwood paste (raktachandana)[138] or red flowers. Dūrvā grass (Cynodon dactylon) and other materials are also used in his worship.[139]

Festivals associated with Ganesh are Ganesha Chaturthi or Vināyaka chaturthī in the śuklapakṣa (the fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of Bhadrapada (August/September) and the Ganesh Jayanti (Ganesha’s birthday) celebrated on the cathurthī of the śuklapakṣa (fourth day of the waxing moon) in the month of magha (January/February).»[140]

Ganesha Chaturthi[edit]

An annual festival honours Ganesha for ten days, starting on Ganesha Chaturthi, which typically falls in late August or early September.[141] The festival begins with people bringing in clay idols of Ganesha, symbolising the god’s visit. The festival culminates on the day of Ananta Chaturdashi, when the idols (murtis) are immersed in the most convenient body of water.[142] Some families have a tradition of immersion on the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, or 7th day. In 1893, Lokmanya Tilak transformed this annual Ganesha festival from private family celebrations into a grand public event.[143] He did so «to bridge the gap between the Brahmins and the non-Brahmins and find an appropriate context in which to build a new grassroots unity between them» in his nationalistic strivings against the British in Maharashtra.[144] Because of Ganesha’s wide appeal as «the god for Everyman», Tilak chose him as a rallying point for Indian protest against British rule.[145] Tilak was the first to install large public images of Ganesha in pavilions, and he established the practice of submerging all the public images on the tenth day.[146]
Today, Hindus across India celebrate the Ganapati festival with great fervour, though it is most popular in the state of Maharashtra.[147][148] The festival also assumes huge proportions in Mumbai, Pune, and in the surrounding belt of Ashtavinayaka temples.

Temples[edit]

The Morgaon temple, the chief Ashtavinyak temple

In Hindu temples, Ganesha is depicted in various ways: as a subordinate deity (pãrśva-devatã); as a deity related to the principal deity (parivāra-devatã); or as the principal deity of the temple (pradhāna).[149] As the god of transitions, he is placed at the doorway of many Hindu temples to keep out the unworthy, which is analogous to his role as Parvati’s doorkeeper.[150] In addition, several shrines are dedicated to Ganesha himself, of which the Ashtavinayak (Sanskrit: अष्टविनायक; aṣṭavināyaka; lit. «eight Ganesha (shrines)») in Maharashtra are particularly well known. Located within a 100-kilometer radius of the city of Pune, each of the eight shrines celebrates a particular form of Ganapati, complete with its own lore.[151] The eight shrines are: Morgaon, Siddhatek, Pali, Mahad, Theur, Lenyadri, Ozar and Ranjangaon.

There are many other important Ganesha temples at the following locations: Siddhivinayak temple in Mumbai, Ganpatipule temple at Ganpatipule, Binkhambi Ganesh mandir in Kolhapur, Jai Vinayak temple in Jaigad, Ratnagiri, Wai in Maharashtra;
Ujjain in Madhya Pradesh; Jodhpur, Nagaur and Raipur (Pali) in Rajasthan; Baidyanath in Bihar; Baroda, Dholaka, and Valsad in Gujarat and Dhundiraj Temple in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Prominent Ganesha temples in southern India include the following: Kanipakam in Andhra Pradesh; the Rockfort Ucchi Pillayar Temple at Tiruchirapalli, Puliakulam Munthi Vinayagar Temple at Coimbatore[152] and Karpaga Vinayagar Temple in Pillaiyarpatti which is a town named after Ganesha in Tamil Nadu; Kottarakkara, Pazhavangadi, Kasargod in Kerala; Hampi, and Idagunji in Karnataka; and Bhadrachalam in Telangana.[153]

T. A. Gopinatha notes, «Every village however small has its own image of Vighneśvara (Vigneshvara) with or without a temple to house it in. At entrances of villages and forts, below pīpaḹa (Sacred fig) trees … in a niche … in temples of Viṣṇu (Vishnu) as well as Śiva (Shiva) and also in separate shrines specially constructed in Śiva temples … the figure of Vighneśvara is invariably seen.»[154] Ganesha temples have also been built outside of India, including Southeast Asia, Nepal (including the four Vinayaka shrines in the Kathmandu Valley),[155] and in several western countries.[156]

Rise to prominence[edit]

First appearance[edit]

An elephant–headed anthropomorphic figure on Indo-Greek coins from the 1st century BCE has been proposed by some scholars to be «incipient Ganesha», while others have suggested Ganesha may have been an emerging deity in India and southeast Asia around the 2nd century CE based on the evidence from archaeological excavations in Mathura and outside India.[159] First terracotta images of Ganesha are from 1st century CE found in Ter, Pal, Verrapuram, and Chandraketugarh. These figures are small, with an elephant head, two arms, and chubby physique. The earliest Ganesha icons in stone were carved in Mathura during Kushan times (2nd–3rd centuries CE).[160]

Ganesha appeared in his classic form as a clearly-recognizable deity with well-defined iconographic attributes in the early 4th to 5th centuries CE.[161] Some of the earliest known Ganesha images include two images found in eastern Afghanistan. The first image was discovered in the ruins north of Kabul along with those of Surya and Shiva. It is dated to the 4th century. The second image found in Gardez, the Gardez Ganesha, has an inscription on Ganesha pedestal that has helped date it to the 5th century. Another Ganesha sculpture is embedded in the walls of Cave 6 of the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh. This is dated to the 5th century. An early iconic image of Ganesha with elephant head, a bowl of sweets and a goddess sitting in his lap has been found in the ruins of the Bhumara Temple in Madhya Pradesh, and this is dated to the 5th-century Gupta period.[162][163][164] Other recent discoveries, such as one from Ramgarh Hill, are also dated to the 4th or 5th century.[163] An independent cult with Ganesha as the primary deity was well established by about the 10th century.[161] Narain summarises the lack of evidence about Ganesha’s history before the 5th century as follows:[161]

What is inscrutable is the somewhat dramatic appearance of Gaṇeśa on the historical scene. His antecedents are not clear. His wide acceptance and popularity, which transcend sectarian and territorial limits, are indeed amazing. On the one hand, there is the pious belief of the orthodox devotees in Gaṇeśa’s Vedic origins and in the Purāṇic explanations contained in the confusing, but nonetheless interesting, mythology. On the other hand, there are doubts about the existence of the idea and the icon of this deity» before the fourth to fifth century A.D. … [I]n my opinion, indeed there is no convincing evidence [in ancient Brahmanic literature] of the existence of this divinity prior to the fifth century.

The evidence for more ancient Ganesha, suggests Narain, may reside outside Brahmanic or Sanskritic traditions, or outside geocultural boundaries of India.[161] Ganesha appears in China by the 6th century, states Brown,[165] and his artistic images in temple setting as «remover of obstacles» in South Asia appear by about 400 CE.[166] He is, states Bailey, recognised as goddess Parvati’s son and integrated into Shaivism theology by early centuries of the common era.[167]

Possible influences[edit]

Courtright reviews various speculative theories about the early history of Ganesha, including supposed tribal traditions and animal cults, and dismisses all of them in this way:[168]

In this search for a historical origin for Gaṇeśa, some have suggested precise locations outside the Brāhmaṇic tradition…. These historical locations are intriguing to be sure, but the fact remains that they are all speculations, variations on the Dravidian hypothesis, which argues that anything not attested to in the Vedic and Indo-European sources must have come into Brāhmaṇic religion from the Dravidian or aboriginal populations of India as part of the process that produced Hinduism out of the interactions of the Aryan and non-Aryan populations. There is no independent evidence for an elephant cult or a totem; nor is there any archaeological data pointing to a tradition prior to what we can already see in place in the Purāṇic literature and the iconography of Gaṇeśa.

Thapan’s book on the development of Ganesha devotes a chapter to speculations about the role elephants had in early India but concludes that «although by the second century CE the elephant-headed yakṣa form exists it cannot be presumed to represent Gaṇapati-Vināyaka. There is no evidence of a deity by this name having an elephant or elephant-headed form at this early stage. Gaṇapati-Vināyaka had yet to make his debut.»[169]

The Pashupati seal (c. 2300 BCE — 2000 BCE) depicts 4 animals including an elephant around a deity who is claimed by some to be Shiva. Brown notes that this seal indicates the sacredness of elephants before Vedic period.[170] One theory of the origin of Ganesha is that he gradually came to prominence in connection with the four Vinayakas (Vināyakas).[171] In Hindu mythology, the Vināyakas were a group of four troublesome demons who created obstacles and difficulties[172] but who were easily propitiated.[173] The name Vināyaka is a common name for Ganesha both in the Purāṇas and in Buddhist Tantras.[28] Krishan is one of the academics who accept this view, stating flatly of Ganesha, «He is a non-Vedic god. His origin is to be traced to the four Vināyakas, evil spirits, of the Mānavagŗhyasūtra (7th–4th century BCE) who cause various types of evil and suffering».[174] Depictions of elephant-headed human figures, which some identify with Ganesha, appear in Indian art and coinage as early as the 2nd century.[175] According to Ellawala, the elephant-headed Ganesha as lord of the Ganas was known to the people of Sri Lanka in the early pre-Christian era.[176]

Vedic and epic literature[edit]

17th century RajasthanI manuscript of the Mahabharata depicting Vyasa narrating the Mahabharata to Ganesha, who serves as the scribe

The title «Leader of the group» (Sanskrit: gaṇapati) occurs twice in the Rig Veda, but in neither case does it refer to the modern Ganesha. The term appears in RV 2.23.1 as a title for Brahmanaspati, according to commentators.[177] While this verse doubtless refers to Brahmanaspati, it was later adopted for worship of Ganesha and is still used today.[178] In rejecting any claim that this passage is evidence of Ganesha in the Rig Veda, Ludo Rocher says that it «clearly refers to Bṛhaspati—who is the deity of the hymn—and Bṛhaspati only».[179] Equally clearly, the second passage (RV 10.112.9) refers to Indra,[180] who is given the epithet ‘gaṇapati‘, translated «Lord of the companies (of the Maruts).»[181] However, Rocher notes that the more recent Ganapatya literature often quotes the Rigvedic verses to give Vedic respectability to Ganesha.[182]

The Sangam period Tamil poet Avvaiyar (3rd century BCE), invokes Ganesha while preparing the invitation to the three Tamil Kingdoms for giving away in marriage of Angavay and Sangavay of Ceylon in marriage to the King of Tirucovalur (pp. 57–59).[183]

Two verses in texts belonging to Black Yajurveda, Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā (2.9.1)[184] and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka (10.1),[185] appeal to a deity as «the tusked one» (Dantiḥ), «elephant-faced» (Hastimukha), and «with a curved trunk» (Vakratuṇḍa). These names are suggestive of Ganesha, and the 14th century commentator Sayana explicitly establishes this identification.[186] The description of Dantin, possessing a twisted trunk (vakratuṇḍa) and holding a corn-sheaf, a sugar cane,[187] and a club,[188] is so characteristic of the Puranic Ganapati that Heras says «we cannot resist to accept his full identification with this Vedic Dantin».[189] However, Krishan considers these hymns to be post-Vedic additions.[190] Thapan reports that these passages are «generally considered to have been interpolated». Dhavalikar says, «the references to the elephant-headed deity in the Maitrāyaṇī Saṃhitā have been proven to be very late interpolations, and thus are not very helpful for determining the early formation of the deity».[191]

Ganesha does not appear in the Indian epic literature that is dated to the Vedic period. A late interpolation to the epic poem Mahabharata (1.1.75–79[a]) says that the sage Vyasa (Vyāsa) asked Ganesha to serve as his scribe to transcribe the poem as he dictated it to him. Ganesha agreed but only on the condition that Vyasa recites the poem uninterrupted, that is, without pausing. The sage agreed but found that to get any rest he needed to recite very complex passages so Ganesha would have to ask for clarifications. The story is not accepted as part of the original text by the editors of the critical edition of the Mahabharata,[192] in which the twenty-line story is relegated to a footnote in an appendix.[193] The story of Ganesha acting as the scribe occurs in 37 of the 59 manuscripts consulted during the preparation of the critical edition.[194] Ganesha’s association with mental agility and learning is one reason he is shown as scribe for Vyāsa‘s dictation of the Mahabharata in this interpolation.[195] Richard L. Brown dates the story to the 8th century, and Moriz Winternitz concludes that it was known as early as c. 900, but it was not added to the Mahabharata some 150 years later. Winternitz also notes that a distinctive feature in South Indian manuscripts of the Mahabharata is their omission of this Ganesha legend.[196] The term vināyaka is found in some recensions of the Śāntiparva and Anuśāsanaparva that are regarded as interpolations.[197] A reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām («Creator of Obstacles») in Vanaparva is also believed to be an interpolation and does not appear in the critical edition.[198]

Puranic period[edit]

A Ganesha-centric Panchayatana: Ganesha (centre) with Shiva (top left), Devi (top right), Vishnu (bottom left) and Surya (bottom right).

Stories about Ganesha often occur in the Puranic corpus. Brown notes while the Puranas «defy precise chronological ordering», the more detailed narratives of Ganesha’s life are in the late texts, c. 600–1300.[199] Yuvraj Krishan says that the Puranic myths about the birth of Ganesha and how he acquired an elephant’s head are in the later Puranas, which were composed of c. 600 onwards. He elaborates on the matter to say that references to Ganesha in the earlier Puranas, such as the Vayu and Brahmanda Puranas, are later interpolations made during the 7th to 10th centuries.[200]

In his survey of Ganesha’s rise to prominence in Sanskrit literature, Ludo Rocher notes that:[201]

Above all, one cannot help being struck by the fact that the numerous stories surrounding Gaṇeśa concentrate on an unexpectedly limited number of incidents. These incidents are mainly three: his birth and parenthood, his elephant head, and his single tusk. Other incidents are touched on in the texts, but to a far lesser extent.

Ganesha’s rise to prominence was codified in the 9th century when he was formally included as one of the five primary deities of Smartism. The 9th-century philosopher Adi Shankara popularised the «worship of the five forms» (Panchayatana puja) system among orthodox Brahmins of the Smarta tradition.[202] This worship practice invokes the five deities Ganesha, Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, and Surya.[203] Adi Shankara instituted the tradition primarily to unite the principal deities of these five major sects on an equal status. This formalised the role of Ganesha as a complementary deity.

Scriptures[edit]

Once Ganesha was accepted as one of the five principal deities of Hinduism, some Hindus chose Ganesha as their principal deity. They developed the Ganapatya tradition, as seen in the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana.[204]

The date of composition for the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana—and their dating relative to one another—has sparked academic debate. Both works were developed over time and contain age-layered strata. Anita Thapan reviews comment about dating and provide her own judgment. «It seems likely that the core of the Ganesha Purana appeared around the twelfth and thirteenth centuries», she says, «but was later interpolated.»[205] Lawrence W. Preston considers the most reasonable date for the Ganesha Purana to be between 1100 and 1400, which coincides with the apparent age of the sacred sites mentioned by the text.[206]

R.C. Hazra suggests that the Mudgala Purana is older than the Ganesha Purana, which he dates between 1100 and 1400.[207] However, Phyllis Granoff finds problems with this relative dating and concludes that the Mudgala Purana was the last of the philosophical texts concerned with Ganesha. She bases her reasoning on the fact that, among other internal evidence, the Mudgala Purana specifically mentions the Ganesha Purana as one of the four Puranas (the Brahma, the Brahmanda, the Ganesha, and the Mudgala Puranas) which deal at length with Ganesha.[208] While the kernel of the text must be old, it was interpolated until the 17th and 18th centuries as the worship of Ganapati became more important in certain regions.[209] Another highly regarded scripture in the Ganapatya tradition, the Sanskrit Ganapati Atharvashirsa, was probably composed during the 16th or 17th century.[210][211]

The Ganesha Sahasranama is part of the Puranic literature, and is a litany of a thousand names and attributes of Ganesha. Each name in the sahasranama conveys a different meaning and symbolises a different aspect of Ganesha. Versions of the Ganesha Sahasranama are found in the Ganesha Purana.[212]

Beyond India and Hinduism[edit]

(clockwise from top) Ganesha in Tibet (as Maharakta), Nepal, Thailand, Japan (as Kangiten) and coat of arms of Salatiga, Indonesia.

Commercial and cultural contacts extended India’s influence in Western and Southeast Asia. Ganesha is one of a number of Hindu deities who consequently reached foreign lands.[213]

Ganesha was particularly worshipped by traders and merchants, who went out of India for commercial ventures.[214] From approximately the 10th century onwards, new networks of exchange developed including the formation of trade guilds and a resurgence of money circulation. During this time, Ganesha became the principal deity associated with traders.[215] The earliest inscription invoking Ganesha before any other deity is associated with the merchant community.[216]

Hindus migrated to Maritime Southeast Asia and took their culture, including Ganesha, with them.[217] Statues of Ganesha are found throughout the region, often beside Shiva sanctuaries. The forms of Ganesha found in the Hindu art of Philippines, Java, Bali, and Borneo show specific regional influences.[218] The spread of Hindu culture throughout Southeast Asia established Ganesha worship in modified forms in Burma, Cambodia, and Thailand. In Indochina, Hinduism and Buddhism were practised side by side, and mutual influences can be seen in the iconography of Ganesha in the region.[219] In Thailand, Cambodia, and among the Hindu classes of the Chams in Vietnam, Ganesha was mainly thought of as a remover of obstacles.[220]

Among the Indonesian, who predominantly profess Muslim faith, Ganesha is not worshipped, but seen as a symbol of knowledge, wisdom and education. Many Indonesian public universities feature Ganesha’s likeness in their grounds or logo. Blitar, Salatiga City, and Kediri Regency are among three local governments that include Ganesha in their regency/city official seals. Indonesia is the only country who featured Ganesha on her bill (20 thousand denomination, between 1998 and 2008), although it is no longer in circulation.

Today in Buddhist Thailand, Ganesha is regarded as a remover of obstacles, the god of success.[220] Thailand regards Ganesha mainly as the god of arts and academics. The belief was initiated by King Vajiravudh of the Chakri dynasty who was devoted to Ganesha personally. He even built a Ganesha shrine at his personal palace, Sanam Chandra Palace in Nakhon Pathom Province where he focused on his academic and literature works. His personal belief regarding Ganesha as the god of arts formally became prominent following the establishment of the Fine Arts Department where he took Ganesha as the seal. Today, Ganesha is depicted both in the seal of the Fine Arts Department, and Thailand’s first prominent fine arts academy; the Silpakorn University.[221]

Before the arrival of Islam, Afghanistan had close cultural ties with India, and the adoration of both Hindu and Buddhist deities was practised. Examples of sculptures from the 5th to the 7th centuries have survived, suggesting that the worship of Ganesha was then in vogue in the region.[222]

Ganesha appears in Mahayana Buddhism, not only in the form of the Buddhist god Vināyaka, but also as a Hindu demon form with the same name.[223] His image appears in Buddhist sculptures during the late Gupta period.[224] As the Buddhist god Vināyaka, he is often shown dancing. This form, called Nṛtta Ganapati, was popular in northern India, later adopted in Nepal, and then in Tibet.[225] In Nepal, the Hindu form of Ganesha, known as Heramba, is popular; he has five heads and rides a lion.[226] Tibetan representations of Ganesha show ambivalent views of him.[227] A Tibetan rendering of Ganapati is tshogs bdag.[228] In one Tibetan form, he is shown being trodden under foot by Mahākāla,(Shiva) a popular Tibetan deity.[229] Other depictions show him as the Destroyer of Obstacles, and sometimes dancing.[230] Ganesha appears in China and Japan in forms that show distinct regional character. In northern China, the earliest known stone statue of Ganesha carries an inscription dated to 531.[231] In Japan, where Ganesha is known as Kangiten, the Ganesha cult was first mentioned in 806.[232]

The canonical literature of Jainism does not mention the worship of Ganesha.[233] However, Ganesha is worshipped by some Jains, for whom he appears to have taken over certain functions of the god of wealth, Kubera.[234] Jain ties with the trading community support the idea that Jainism took up Ganesha worship as a result of commercial connections and influence of Hinduism.[235] The earliest known Jain Ganesha statue dates to about the 9th century.[236] A 15th-century Jain text lists procedures for the installation of its images.[233] Images of Ganesha appear in some Jain temples of Rajasthan and Gujarat.[237]

See also[edit]

  • Gajasura
  • Cultural depictions of elephants

Explanatory notes[edit]

  1. ^ Bombay edition
  1. ^ For the human-headed form of Ganesha in:
    • Adhi Vinayaka temple near Koothanur, Tamil Nadu.[48]
    • Cambodia, see Brown 1991, p. 10
    • Nandrudayan Vinayaka Temple.[49]
    • Uthrapathiswaraswamy Temple.[50]

Citations[edit]

  1. ^ Heras 1972, p. 58.
  2. ^ a b Getty 1936, p. 5.
  3. ^ «Ganesha getting ready to throw his lotus. Basohli miniature, circa 1730. National Museum, New Delhi. In the Mudgalapurāṇa (VII, 70), in order to kill the demon of egotism (Mamāsura) who had attacked him, Gaṇeśa Vighnarāja throws his lotus at him. Unable to bear the fragrance of the divine flower, the demon surrenders to Gaṇeśha.» For quotation of description of the work, see: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 73.
  4. ^ Ramachandra Rao 1992, p. 6.
  5. ^      
    • Brown 1991, p. 1 «Gaṇeśa is often said to be the most worshipped god in India.»
    • Getty 1936, p. 1 «Gaṇeśa, Lord of the Gaṇas, although among the latest deities to be admitted to the Brahmanic pantheon, was, and still is, the most universally adored of all the Hindu gods and his image is found in practically every part of India.»

  6. ^      
    • Ramachandra Rao 1992, p. 1
    • Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 1
    • Brown 1991, p. 1

  7. ^ https://m.timesofindia.com/world/us/street-in-new-york-named-ganesh-temple-street-after-prominent-hindu-temple/amp_articleshow/90638850.cms
  8. ^      
    • Chapter XVII, «The Travels Abroad», in: Nagar 1992, pp. 175–187. For a review of Ganesha’s geographic spread and popularity outside of India.
    • Getty 1936, pp. 37–38, For discussion of the spread of Ganesha worship to Nepal, Chinese Turkestan, Tibet, Burma, Siam, Indo-China, Java, Bali, Borneo, China, and Japan
    • Martin-Dubost 1997, pp. 311–320
    • Thapan 1997, p. 13
    • Apte 1965, pp. 2–3

  9. ^ Martin-Dubost, p. 2.
  10. ^ For Ganesha’s role as an eliminator of obstacles, see commentary on Gaṇapati Upaniṣad, verse 12 in Saraswati 2004, p. 80
  11. ^ DeVito, Carole; DeVito, Pasquale (1994). India — Mahabharata. Fulbright-Hays Summer Seminar Abroad 1994 (India). United States Educational Foundation in India. p. 4.
  12. ^ Heras 1972, p. 58
  13. ^ , Vigna means obstacles Nasha means destroy. These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings.
  14. ^ Narain, A.K. «Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon» in Brown 1991, p. 27
  15. ^ Gavin D., Flood (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. pp. 14–18, 110–113. ISBN 978-0521438780.
  16. ^ Vasudha, Narayan (2009). Hinduism. The Rosen Publishing Group. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-1435856202.
  17. ^ For history of the development of the gāṇapatya and their relationship to the wide geographic dispersion of Ganesha worship, see: Chapter 6, «The Gāṇapatyas» in: Thapan 1997, pp. 176–213.
  18. ^ «Lord Ganesha – Symbolic description of Lord Ganesha | – Times of India». The Times of India. 4 April 2019. Archived from the original on 7 September 2019. Retrieved 4 November 2020.
  19. ^ * Narain, A.K. «Gaṇeśa: A Protohistory of the Idea and the Icon». Brown 1991, pp. 21–22.
    • Apte 1965, p. 395.

  20. ^ For the derivation of the name and relationship with the gaṇas, see: Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 2
  21. ^ a b Apte 1965, p. 395.
  22. ^ The word gaṇa is interpreted in this metaphysical sense by Bhāskararāya in his commentary on the gaṇeśasahasranāma. See in particular commentary on verse 6 including names Gaṇeśvaraḥ and Gaṇakrīḍaḥ in: Śāstri Khiste 1991, pp. 7–8.
  23. ^ Grimes 1995, pp. 17–19, 201.
  24. ^ Rigveda Mandala 2 Archived 2 February 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Hymn 2.23.1, Wikisource, Quote: गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनामुपमश्रवस्तमम् । ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत आ नः शृण्वन्नूतिभिः सीद सादनम् ॥१॥; For translation, see Grimes 1995, pp. 17–19
  25. ^
    • Oka 1913, p. 8 for source text of Amarakośa 1.38 as vināyako vighnarājadvaimāturagaṇādhipāḥ – apyekadantaherambalambodaragajānanāḥ.
    • Śāstri 1978 for text of Amarakośa versified as 1.1.38.

  26. ^ Y. Krishan, Gaṇeśa: Unravelling an Enigma, 1999, p. 6): «Pārvati who created an image of Gaṇeśa out of her bodily impurities but which became endowed with life after immersion in the sacred waters of the Gangā. Therefore he is said to have two mothers—Pārvati and Gangā and hence called dvaimātura and also Gāngeya.»
  27. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 6
  28. ^ a b Thapan 1997, p. 20
  29. ^ For the history of the aṣṭavināyaka sites and a description of pilgrimage practices related to them, see: Mate 1962, pp. 1–25
  30. ^ These ideas are so common that Courtright uses them in the title of his book, Ganesha: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For the name Vighnesha, see: Courtright 1985, pp. 156, 213
  31. ^ a b For Krishan’s views on Ganesha’s dual nature see his quote: «Gaṇeśa has a dual nature; as Vināyaka, as a grāmadevatā, he is vighnakartā, and as Gaṇeśa he is vighnahartā, a paurāṇic devatā.» (Krishan 1999, p. viii)
  32. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 367.
  33. ^ Narain, A.K. «Gaṇeśa: The Idea and the Icon».Brown 1991, p. 25
  34. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 62
  35. ^ Myanmar-English Dictionary, Yangon: Dunwoody Press, 1993, ISBN 978-1881265474, archived from the original on 10 February 2010, retrieved 20 September 2010
  36. ^ Justin Thomas McDaniel (2013). The Lovelorn Ghost and the Magical Monk: Practicing Buddhism in Modern Thailand. Columbia University Press. pp. 156–157. ISBN 978-0231153775.
  37. ^ Brown, Robert L. (1987), «A Note on the Recently Discovered Gaṇeśa Image from Palembang, Sumatra», Indonesia, 43 (43): 95–100, doi:10.2307/3351212, hdl:1813/53865, JSTOR 3351212
  38. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 176, 182, Note: some scholars suggest adoption of Ganesha by the late 6th century CE, see p. 192 footnote 7.
  39. ^ Brown 1991, p. 190.
  40. ^ John Clifford Holt (1991). Buddha in the Crown : Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press. pp. 6, 100, 180–181. ISBN 978-0195362466.
  41. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf, p. vii
  42. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, for a comprehensive review of iconography abundantly illustrated with pictures.
    • Chapter X, «Development of the Iconography of Gaṇeśa«, in: Krishan 1999, pp. 87–100, for a survey of iconography with emphasis on developmental themes, well-illustrated with plates.
    • Pal 1995, for a richly illustrated collection of studies on specific aspects of Ganesha with a focus on art and iconography.

  43. ^ Brown 1991, p. 175
  44. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 213. In the upper right corner, the statue is dated as (973–1200).
  45. ^ Pal, p. vi. The picture on this page depicts a stone statue in the Los Angeles County Museum of Art that is dated as c. 12th century. Pal shows an example of this form dated c. 13th century on p. viii.
  46. ^ Brown 1991, p. 176
  47. ^ See photograph 2, «Large Ganesh», in: Pal 1995, p. 16
  48. ^ «Adi Vinayaka — The Primordial Form of Ganesh». agasthiar.org. Retrieved 28 December 2017.
  49. ^ «Vinayaka in unique form». The Hindu. 10 October 2003. Archived from the original on 1 May 2015. Retrieved 30 April 2015.
  50. ^ Catlin, Amy; «Vātāpi Gaṇapatim»: Sculptural, Poetic, and Musical Texts in the Hymn to Gaṇeśa» in Brown 1991, pp. 146, 150
  51. ^ In:
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 197–198
    • photograph 9, «Ganesh images being taken for immersion», in: Pal 1995, pp. 22–23. For an example of a large image of this type being carried in a festival procession.
    • Pal 1995, p. 25, For two similar statues about to be immersed.

  52. ^ In:
    • Pal 1995, pp. 41–64. For many examples of Ganesha dancing.
    • Brown 1991, p. 183 For the popularity of the dancing form.

  53. ^ Four-armed Gaṇeśa. Miniature of Nurpur school, circa 1810. Museum of Chandigarh. For this image see: Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 64, which describes it as follows: «On a terrace leaning against a thick white bolster, Gaṇeśa is seated on a bed of pink lotus petals arranged on a low seat to the back of which is fixed a parasol. The elephant-faced god, with his body entirely red, is dressed in a yellow dhoti and a yellow scarf fringed with blue. Two white mice decorated with a pretty golden necklace salute Gaṇeśa by joining their tiny feet together. Gaṇeśa counts on his rosary in his lower right hand; his two upper hands brandish an axe and an elephant goad; his fourth hand holds the broken left tusk.»
  54. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 77
  55. ^ Brown 1991, p. 3
  56. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 78
  57. ^ Brown 1991, p. 76
  58. ^ Brown 1991, p. 77
  59. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 77–78
  60. ^ For creation of Ganesha from Shiva’s laughter and subsequent curse by Shiva, see Varaha Purana 23.17 as cited in Brown 1991, p. 77.
  61. ^ Getty 1936, p. 1.
  62. ^ Heras 1972, p. 29
  63. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. «Gaṇeśa as Metaphor». Brown 1991, pp. 92–94
  64. ^ «Ganesha in Indian Plastic Art» and Passim. Nagar 1992, p. 78
  65. ^ Granoff, Phyllis. «Gaṇeśa as Metaphor». Brown 1991, p. 76
  66. ^ For translation of Udara as «belly» see: Apte 1965, p. 268
  67. ^
    • Br. P. 2.3.42.34
    • Thapan 1997, p. 200, For a description of how a variant of this story is used in the Mudgala Purana 2.56.38–9

  68. ^ For an iconographic chart showing number of arms and attributes classified by source and named form, see: Nagar 1992, pp. 191–195 Appendix I.
  69. ^ For history and prevalence of forms with various arms and the four-armed form as one of the standard types see: Krishan 1999, p. 89.
  70. ^
    • Krishan 1999, p. 89, For two-armed forms as an earlier development than four-armed forms.
    • Brown 1991, p. 103 Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri say in «Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism» that the presence of only two arms on a Ganesha image points to an early date.

  71. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 120.
  72. ^
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 50–53, For an overview of snake images in Ganesha iconography.

  73. ^ Ganesha Purana
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202. For the Ganesha Purana references for Vāsuki around the neck and use of a serpent-throne.
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 51–52. For the story of wrapping Vāsuki around the neck and Śeṣa around the belly and for the name in his sahasranama as Sarpagraiveyakāṅgādaḥ («Who has a serpent around his neck»), which refers to this standard iconographic element.

  74. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 202. For the text of a stone inscription dated 1470 identifying Ganesha’s sacred thread as the serpent Śeṣa.
    • Nagar 1992, p. 92. For the snake as a common type of yajñyopavīta for Ganesha.

  75. ^ * Nagar 1992, p. 81. tilaka with three horizontal lines.
    • the dhyānam in: Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.1. For Ganesa visualized as trinetraṁ (having three eyes).

  76. ^ * Nagar 1992, p. 81. For a citation to Ganesha Purana I.14.21–25 and For a citation to Padma Purana as prescribing the crescent for decoration of the forehead of Ganesha
    • Bailey 1995, pp. 198–199. For the translation of Ganesha Purana I.14, which includes a meditation form with the moon on forehead.

  77. ^
    • Nagar 1992, p. 81 For Bhālacandra as a distinct form worshipped.
    • Sharma (1993 edition of Ganesha Purana) I.46.15. For the name Bhālacandra appearing in the Ganesha Sahasranama

  78. ^ a b Civarāman̲, Akilā (2014). Sri Ganesha Purana. Giri Trading Agency. ISBN 978-81-7950-629-5.
  79. ^ Martin-Dubost, Paul (1997). Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds. Franco-Indian Research. pp. 412–416. ISBN 978-81-900184-3-2.
  80. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, pp. 224–228
  81. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 228
  82. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 47–48, 78
  83. ^ Krishan 1981–1982, p. 49
  84. ^
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 48–49
    • Bailey 1995, p. 348. For the Ganesha Purana story of Mayūreśvara with the peacock mount (GP I.84.2–3)
    • Maruti Nandan Tiwari and Kamal Giri, «Images of Gaṇeśa In Jainism», in: Brown 1991, pp. 101–102.

  85. ^ * Nagar 1992. Preface.
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 231–244.

  86. ^ See note on figure 43 in: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 144.
  87. ^ Citations to Matsya Purana 260.54, Brahmananda Purana Lalitamahatmya XXVII, and Ganesha Purana 2.134–136 are provided by: Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 231.
  88. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 232.
  89. ^ For Mūṣakavāhana see v. 6. For Ākhuketana see v. 67. In: Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita. (Prācya Prakāśana: Vārāṇasī, 1991). Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  90. ^ For a review of different interpretations, and quotation, see: Grimes 1995, p. 86.
  91. ^ A Student’s Guide to AS Religious Studies for the OCR Specification, by Michael Wilcockson, p. 117
  92. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 49–50
  93. ^ * Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 231
    • Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature», in: Brown 1991, p. 73. For mention of the interpretation that «the rat is ‘the animal that finds its way to every place,'»

  94. ^ «Lord of Removal of Obstacles», a common name, appears in the title of Courtright’s Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings. For equivalent Sanskrit names Vighneśvara and Vighnarāja, see: Mate 1962, p. 136
  95. ^ «Ganesha: The Remover of Obstacles». 31 May 2016.
  96. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 136
  97. ^ For Dhavilkar’s views on Ganesha’s shifting role, see Dhavalikar, M.K. «Gaṇeśa: Myth and reality» in Brown 1991, p. 49
  98. ^ Brown 1991, p. 6
  99. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 5.
  100. ^ Apte 1965, p. 703.
  101. ^ Ganesha Purana I.46, v. 5 of the Ganesha Sahasranama section in GP-1993, Sharma edition. It appears in verse 10 of the version as given in the Bhaskararaya commentary.
  102. ^ Sharma edition, GP-1993 I.46, verses 204–206. The Bailey edition uses a variant text, and where Sharma reads Buddhipriya, Bailey translates Granter-of-lakhs.
  103. ^ Practical Sanskrit Dictionary By Arthur Anthony McDonell; p. 187 (priya); Published 2004; Motilal Banarsidass Publ; ISBN 8120820002
  104. ^ Krishan 1999, pp. 60–70p. discusses Ganesha as «Buddhi’s Husband».
  105. ^ Grimes, p. 77.
  106. ^ Chinmayananda 1987, p. 127, In Chinmayananda’s numbering system, this is upamantra 8..
  107. ^ For examples of both, see: Grimes 1995, pp. 79–80
  108. ^ a b Tantra Unveiled: Seducing the Forces of Matter & Spirit By Rajmani Tigunait; Contributor Deborah Willoughby; Published 1999; Himalayan Institute Press; p. 83; ISBN 0893891584
  109. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 253.
  110. ^ Chinmayananda 1987, p. 127, In Chinmayananda’s numbering system this is part of upamantra 7. ‘You have a permanent abode (in every being) at the place called «Muladhara»‘..
  111. ^ This work is reproduced and described in Martin-Dubost (1997), p. 51, which describes it as follows: «This square shaped miniature shows us in a Himalayan landscape the god Śiva sweetly pouring water from his kamaṇḍalu on the head of baby Gaṇeśa. Seated comfortably on the meadow, Pārvatī balances with her left hand the baby Gaņeśa with four arms with a red body and naked, adorned only with jewels, tiny anklets and a golden chain around his stomach, a necklace of pearls, bracelets and armlets.»
  112. ^ In:
    • Nagar 1992, pp. 7–14. For a summary of Puranic variants of birth stories.
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 41–82. Chapter 2, «Stories of Birth According to the Purāṇas«.

  113. ^ Shiva Purana IV. 17.47–57. Matsya Purana 154.547.
  114. ^ Linga Purana
  115. ^ Varāha Purana 23.18–59.
  116. ^ For summary of Brahmavaivarta Purana, Ganesha Khanda, 10.8–37, see: Nagar 1992, pp. 11–13.
  117. ^ Melton, J. Gordon (13 September 2011). Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations. ABC-CLIO. pp. 325–. ISBN 978-1598842050.
  118. ^ For a summary of variant names for Skanda, see: Thapan 1997, p. 300.
  119. ^ Khokar & Saraswati 2005 p.4.
  120. ^ Brown 1991, p. 79.
  121. ^ Oka 1913, p. 38.
  122. ^ For a review, see: Cohen, Lawrence. «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«. Brown 1991, pp. 115–140
  123. ^ In:
    • Getty 1936, p. 33. «According to ancient tradition, Gaṇeśa was a Brahmacārin, that is, an unmarried deity; but legend gave him two consorts, personifications of Wisdom (Buddhi) and Success (Siddhi).»
    • Krishan 1999, p. 63. «… in the smārta or orthodox traditional religious beliefs, Gaṇeśa is a bachelor or brahmacārī«

  124. ^ For discussion on celibacy of Ganesha, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 126–129.
  125. ^ For a review of associations with Buddhi, Siddhi, Riddhi, and other figures, and the statement «In short the spouses of Gaṇeśa are the personifications of his powers, manifesting his functional features…», see: Krishan 1999, p. 62.
  126. ^ For single consort or a nameless daşi (servant), see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, p. 115.
  127. ^ For associations with Śarda and Sarasvati and the identification of those goddesses with one another, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 131–132.
  128. ^ For associations with Lakshmi see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 132–135.
  129. ^ For discussion of the Kala Bou, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, pp. 124–125.
  130. ^ For statement regarding sons, see: Cohen, Lawrence, «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«, in: Brown 1991, p. 130.
  131. ^ In:
    • Cohen, Lawrence. «The Wives of Gaṇeśa«. Brown 1991, p. 130.
    • Thapan 1997, p. 15–16, 230, 239, 242, 251.

  132. ^ Krishan 1981–1982, pp. 1–3
  133. ^ K.N. Somayaji, Concept of Ganesha, p. 1 as quoted in Krishan 1999, pp. 2–3
  134. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 38
  135. ^ For worship of Ganesha by «followers of all sects and denominations, Saivites, Vaisnavites, Buddhists, and Jainas» see Krishan 1981–1982, p. 285
  136. ^ Grimes 1995, p. 27
  137. ^ The term modaka applies to all regional varieties of cakes or sweets offered to Ganesha. Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 204.
  138. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 369.
  139. ^ Martin-Dubost 1965, pp. 95–99
  140. ^ Thapan 1997 p. 215
  141. ^ For the fourth waxing day in Māgha being dedicated to Ganesa (Gaṇeśa-caturthī) see: (Bhattacharyya 1956)., «Festivals and Sacred Days», in: Bhattacharyya, volume IV, p. 483.
  142. ^ The Experience of Hinduism: Essays on Religion in Maharashtra; Edited By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, pp. 76–94 («The Ganesh Festival in Maharashtra: Some Observations» by Paul B. Courtright); 1988; SUNY Press; ISBN 088706664X
  143. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf, p. 150.
  144. ^ In:
    • (Brown 1991, p. 9).
    • Thapan 1997, p. 225 For Tilak’s role in converting the private family festivals to a public event in support of Indian nationalism.

  145. ^ In:
    • Momin, A.R., The Legacy of G.S. Ghurye: A Centennial Festschrift, p. 95.
    • Brown 1991, p. 9. For Ganesha’s appeal as «the god for Everyman» as a motivation for Tilak.

  146. ^ For Tilak as the first to use large public images in maṇḍapas (pavilions or tents) see: Thapan 1997, p. 225.
  147. ^ For Ganesh Chaturthi as the most popular festival in Maharashtra, see: Thapan 1997, p. 226.
  148. ^ «Gaṇeśa in a Regional Setting». Courtright 1985, p. 202–247.
  149. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 92
  150. ^ Brown 1991, p. 3
  151. ^ Grimes 1995, p. 110–112
  152. ^ «Major Ganesha Temples around the world». Tamil Minutes. 31 August 2022. Retrieved 22 October 2022.
  153. ^ Krishna 1985, p. 91–92
  154. ^ T.A. Gopinatha; Elements of Hindu Iconography, p. 47–48 as quoted in Krishan 1999, p. 2
  155. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 147–158
  156. ^ «Ganesha Temples worldwide». Archived from the original on 17 December 2007.
  157. ^ The inscription says that this «great and beautiful image of Mahāvināyaka» was consecrated by the Shahi King Khingala. For photograph of statue and details of inscription, see: Dhavalikar, M.K., «Gaņeśa: Myth and Reality», in: Brown 1991, pp. 50, 63.
  158. ^ Dhavalikar, M. K. (1971), «A Note on Two Gaṇeśa Statues from Afghanistan», East and West, 21 (3/4): 331–336, JSTOR 29755703
  159. ^ Brown 1991, pp. 6–7
  160. ^ Kumar, Ajit (2007). «A Unique Early Historic Terracotta Ganesa Image from Pal, District Aurangabad, Maharashtra». Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress, Vol XI. (2006–2007): 89–91.
  161. ^ a b c d Brown 1991, pp. 19–21, chapter by AK Narain.
  162. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 4
  163. ^ a b Brown 1991, pp. 50–55, 120.
  164. ^ Raman Sukumar (2003). The Living Elephants: Evolutionary Ecology, Behaviour, and Conservation. Oxford University Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0198026730.
  165. ^ Brown 1991, p. 2.
  166. ^ Brown 1991, p. 8.
  167. ^ Bailey 1995, p. ix.
  168. ^ Courtright 1985 p. 10–11.
  169. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 75.
  170. ^ Brown 1991, p. 33
  171. ^ In:
    • Passim. Thapan 1997.
    • Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa’s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 70–72.

  172. ^ Aitareya Brāhmana, I, 21.
  173. ^ Bhandarkar. Vaisnavism, Saivism and other Minor Sects. p. 147–148.
  174. ^ Krishan 1999, p. vii.
  175. ^ For a discussion of early depiction of elephant-headed figures in art, see Krishan 1981–1982, pp. 287–290 or Krishna 1985, pp. 31–32
  176. ^ Ellawala 1969, p. 159.
  177. ^ Wilson, H. H. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume II: Maṇḍalas 2, 3, 4, 5. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K. L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. II); ISBN 8171101380 (Set). RV 2.23.1 (2222) gaṇānāṃ tvā gaṇapatiṃ havāmahe kaviṃ kavīnāmupamaśravastamam | 2.23.1; «We invoke the Brahmaṇaspati, chief leader of the (heavenly) bands; a sage of sages.»
  178. ^ In:
    • Nagar 1992, p. 3.
    • Mate 1962, p. 1.

  179. ^ Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 69. Bṛhaspati is a variant name for Brahamanaspati.
  180. ^ Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 69–70.
  181. ^ Wilson, H.H. Ṛgveda Saṃhitā. Sanskrit text, English translation, notes, and index of verses. Parimal Sanskrit Series No. 45. Volume IV: Maṇḍalas 9, 10. Second Revised Edition; Edited and Revised by Ravi Prakash Arya and K.L. Joshi. (Parimal Publications: Delhi, 2001). (Vol. IV); ISBN 8171101380 (Set). RV 10.112.9 (10092) ni ṣu sīda gaṇapate gaṇeṣu tvāmāhurvipratamaṃ kavīnām; «Lord of the companies (of the Maruts), sit down among the companies (of the worshippers), they call you the most sage of sages».
  182. ^ For use of RV verses in recent Ganapatya literature, see Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature» in Brown 1991, p. 70
  183. ^ Edward Jewitt Robinson (1873). Tamil Wisdom; Traditions Concerning Hindu Sages, and Selections from their writings. London: Wesleyan Conference Office.
  184. ^ The verse : «tát karāţāya vidmahe | hastimukhāya dhîmahi | tán no dántî pracodáyāt||»
  185. ^ The verse: » tát púruṣâya vidmahe vakratuṇḍāya dhîmahi| tán no dántî pracodáyāt||»
  186. ^ For text of Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā 2.9.1 and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka 10.1 and identification by Sāyaṇa in his commentary on the āraṇyaka, see: Rocher, Ludo, «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature» in Brown 1991, p. 70.
  187. ^ Rajarajan, R.K.K. (2001). «Sugarcane Gaṇapati». East and West, Rome. 51 (3/4): 379–84. JSTOR 29757520. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016.
  188. ^ Taittiriya Aranyaka, X, 1, 5.
  189. ^ Heras 1972, p. 28.
  190. ^ In:
    • Krishan 1981–1982, p. 290
    • Krishan 1999, pp. 12–15. For arguments documenting interpolation into the Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā

  191. ^
    • Thapan, p. 101. For interpolation into the Maitrāyaṇīya Saṃhitā and Taittirīya Āraṇyaka.
    • Dhavalikar, M.K. «Gaṇeśa: Myth and reality» in Brown 1991, pp. 56–57. For Dhavilkar’s views on Ganesha’s in early Literature.

  192. ^ Rocher, Ludo «Ganesa’s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown, pp. 71–72.
  193. ^ Mahābhārata Vol. 1 Part 2. Critical edition, p. 884.
  194. ^ For a statement that «Fifty-nine manuscripts of the Ādiparvan were consulted for the reconstruction of the critical edition. The story of Gaṇeśa acting as the scribe for writing the Mahābhārata occurs in 37 manuscripts», see: Krishan 1999, p. 31, note 4.
  195. ^ Brown, p. 4.
  196. ^ Winternitz, Moriz. «Gaṇeśa in the Mahābhārata«. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (1898:382). Citation provided by Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 80.
  197. ^ For interpolations of the term vināyaka see: Krishan 1999, p. 29.
  198. ^ For reference to Vighnakartṛīṇām and translation as «Creator of Obstacles», see: Krishan 1999, p. 29.
  199. ^ Brown 1991, p. 183.
  200. ^ Krishan 1999, p. 103.
  201. ^ Rocher, Ludo. «Gaṇeśa‘s Rise to Prominence in Sanskrit Literature». Brown 1991, p. 73.
  202. ^ * (Courtright 1985, p. 163) For Dating of the pañcāyatana pūjā and its connection with Smārta Brahmins.
    • Bhattacharyya, S., «Indian Hymnology», in: Bhattacharyya 1956, p. 470. Volume VI. For the «five» divinities (pañcādevatā) becoming «the major deities» in general, and their listing as Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu, Surya, and Ganesha.

  203. ^      
    • Grimes 1995, p. 162.
    • Pal 1995, p. ix.

  204. ^ Thapan 1997, pp. 196–197. Addresses the pañcāyatana in the Smārta tradition and the relationship of the Ganesha Purana and the Mudgala Purana to it.
  205. ^ For a review of major differences of opinions between scholars on dating, see: Thapan 1997, pp. 30–33.
  206. ^ Preston, Lawrence W., «Subregional Religious Centers in the History of Maharashtra: The Sites Sacred to Gaṇeśa«, in: N.K. Wagle, ed., Images of Maharashtra: A Regional Profile of India. p. 103.
  207. ^ R.C. Hazra, «The Gaṇeśa Purāṇa«, Journal of the Ganganatha Jha Research Institute (1951); 79–99.
  208. ^ Phyllis Granoff, «Gaṇeśa as Metaphor», in Brown 1991, pp. 94–95, note 2.
  209. ^ Thapan 1997, pp. 30–33.
  210. ^ Courtright 1985, p. 252.
  211. ^ Grimes 1995, pp. 21–22.
  212. ^ Bailey 1995, pp. 258–269.
  213. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 175.
  214. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 174.
  215. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 170.
  216. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 152.
  217. ^ Getty 1936, p. 55.
  218. ^ Getty 1936, p. 55–66.
  219. ^ Getty 1936, p. 52.
  220. ^ a b Brown 1991, p. 182.
  221. ^ วัฒนะมหาตม์, กิตติ (November 2011). «พระคเณศไม่ใช่เทพศิลปะ รัชกาลที่ 6 ทรงทำให้เป็นเทพศิลปะ» [Ganesh was not the god of art. King Vajiravudh was the one who made him be one.]. ศิลปวัฒนธรรม (Arts and Culture) (in Thai) (November 2011). Retrieved 26 May 2020.
  222. ^ In:
    • Nagar 1992, p. 175.
    • Martin-Dubost 1965, p. 311.

  223. ^ Getty 1936, pp. 37–45.
  224. ^ Getty 1936, p. 37.
  225. ^ Getty 1936, p. 38.
  226. ^ Getty 1936, p. 40.
  227. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 185.
  228. ^ Wayman, Alex (2006). Chanting the Names of Manjushri. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers: p. 76. ISBN 8120816536
  229. ^ Ganesha
    • Getty 1936, p. 42.
    • Nagar 1992, p. 185.

  230. ^ Nagar 1992, p. 185–186.
  231. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 311.
  232. ^ Martin-Dubost 1997, p. 313.
  233. ^ a b Krishan 1999, p. 121.
  234. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 157.
  235. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 151, 158, 162, 164, 253.
  236. ^ Krishna 1985, p. 122.
  237. ^ Thapan 1997, p. 158.

General references[edit]

  • Pal, Pratapaditya (1995). Ganesh, the Benevolent. the University of Michigan: Marg Publications. ISBN 9788185026312.
  • Apte, Vaman Shivram (1965). The Practical Sanskrit Dictionary (Fourth revised and enlarged ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-8120805675.
  • Bailey, Greg (1995). Ganeśapurāna: Introduction, translation, notes and index. Harrassowitz. ISBN 978-3447036474.
  • Bhattacharyya, Haridas, ed. (1956). The Cultural Heritage of India. Calcutta: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Four volumes.
  • Brown, Robert (1991), Ganesh: Studies of an Asian God, Albany: State University of New York, ISBN 978-0791406571
  • Chinmayananda, Swami (1987), Glory of Ganesha, Bombay: Central Chinmaya Mission Trust, ISBN 978-8175973589
  • Courtright, Paul B. (1985), Gaṇeśa: Lord of Obstacles, Lord of Beginnings, New York: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195057423
  • Ellawala, H (1969), Social History of Early Ceylon, Colombo: Department of Cultural Affairs.
  • Getty, Alice (1936). Gaṇeśa: A Monograph on the Elephant-Faced God (1992 reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-8121503778.
  • Grimes, John A. (1995), Ganapati: Song of the Self, SUNY Series in Religious Studies, Albany: State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791424407
  • Heras, H. (1972), The Problem of Ganapati, Delhi: Indological Book House
  • Khokar, Ashish; Saraswati, S. (2005), Ganesha-Karttikeya, New Delhi: Rupa and Co, ISBN 978-8129107763
  • Krishan, Yuvraj (1981–1982), «The Origins of Gaṇeśa«, Artibus Asiae, Artibus Asiae Publishers, 43 (4): 285–301, doi:10.2307/3249845, JSTOR 3249845
  • Krishan, Yuvraj (1999), Gaṇeśa: Unravelling An Enigma, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 978-8120814134
  • Krishna, Murthy, K. (1985), Mythical Animals in Indian Art, New Delhi: Abhinav Publications, ISBN 978-0391032873
  • Martin-Dubost, Paul (1965), Gaṇeśa, the Enchanter of the Three Worlds, the University of Michigan: Franco-Indian Research, ISBN 9788190018432
  • Mate, M.S. (1962), Temples and Legends of Maharashtra, Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, OCLC 776939647
  • Metcalf, Thomas R.; Metcalf, Barbara Daly, A Concise History of India, ISBN 978-0521630276
  • Nagar, Shanti Lal (1992). The Cult of Vinayaka. New Delhi: Intellectual Publishing House. ISBN 978-81-7076-044-3.
  • Oka, Krishnaji Govind (1913), The Nāmalingānuśāsana (Amarakosha) of Amarasimha: with the Commentary (Amarakoshodghāṭana) of Kshīrasvāmin, Poona: Law Printing Press, retrieved 14 September 2007.
  • Ramachandra Rao, S.K. (1992), The Compendium on Gaṇeśa, Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications, ISBN 978-8170308287
  • Saraswati, Swami Tattvavidananda (2004), Gaṇapati Upaniṣad, Delhi: D.K. Printworld Ltd., ISBN 978-8124602652
  • Śāstri Khiste, Baṭukanātha (1991), Gaṇeśasahasranāmastotram: mūla evaṁ srībhāskararāyakṛta ‘khadyota’ vārtika sahita, Vārāṇasī: Prācya Prakāśana. Source text with a commentary by Bhāskararāya in Sanskrit.
  • Śāstri, Hargovinda (1978), Amarkoṣa with Hindi commentary, Vārānasi: Chowkhambā Sanskrit Series Office
  • Thapan, Anita Raina (1997). Understanding Gaṇapati: Insights into the Dynamics of a Cult. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers. ISBN 978-8173041952.

External links[edit]

  • Ganesh: Symbol and presence

Ганеша Сахасранама — Ganesha Sahasranama

В Ганеша Сахасранама (санскрит:गणेश सहस्रनाम; гашеша сахасранама) представляет собой список имен Индуистское божество Ганеша (Ганеша). А сахасранама индуистский гимн хвалы, в котором божество упоминается под 1000 или более разных имен. Ганеша Сахасранамы сегодня читаются во многих храмах как живая часть преданности Ганеше.

Есть две различные основные версии Ганеши Сахасранамы, с подвариантами каждой версии.

Одна основная версия представлена ​​в главе I.46 Ганеша Пурана (Ганеша Пурана), важный отрывок из Ганапатья (Ганапатья). Эта версия представляет собой энциклопедический обзор атрибутов и ролей Ганеши, как они понимались Ганапатьей. Комментарий на санскрите к подварианту этой версии Ганеши Сахасранамы был написан Бхаскарарая. (Бхаскарарая).[1] Бхаскарарая называет свой комментарий Khadyota («Светлячок»), играя словами, основанными на двух различных значениях этого санскритского термина. В своем вступительном слове Бхаскарарая говорит, что некоторые скажут, что, поскольку комментарий очень краток, он несущественен, как светлячок (кхадйота), но для преданных он будет сиять, как солнце (кхадйота). Исходный текст (санскрит:मूल; Мула) комментария Бхаскарарая к Хадйоте обычно следует за текстом перепечатанного издания Ганеши Пураны 1993 года (GP-1993).[2], но различий в названиях немало, да и стихосложения немного отличаются. Существует достаточно различий, так что вариант Бхаскарарая и версии GP-1993 можно рассматривать как разные.

Существует совершенно другая вторая основная версия, в которой все имена начинаются с буквы «g» (ग्).[3] Названия и структура этой версии не имеют ничего общего с Ганеша Пурана версия.

108 Имен Ганеши

(имена здесь транслитерируются с санскрита на римский в соответствии с южноиндийской традицией. Например, «d» означает жесткий d, ड, а «dh» означает мягкий d, द. Аналогичным образом «t» означает жесткий t,, в то время как « th ‘обозначает мягкое t,.) (См. также 108 Имен Ганеша.)

  1. Ом Винаякаая Намах (ऊँ विनायकाय नमः)
  2. Ом Вигхна-раджая намах (ऊँ विघ्नराजाय नमः)
  3. Ом Гаури-путхрая намах (ऊँ गौरीपुत्राय नमः)
  4. Ом Ганешварайя Намах (ऊँ गणेश्वराय नमः)
  5. Ом Сканда-граджая намах (ऊँ स्कंदाग्रजाय नमः)
  6. Ом Авьяая намах (ऊँ अव्ययाय नमः)
  7. Ом Путхая Намах (ऊँ पूताय नमः)
  8. Ом Дакшаая Намах (ऊँ दक्षाय नमः)
  9. Ом Адхьякшаая Намах (ऊँ अध्यक्षाय नमः)
  10. Ом Двиджа-прийая намах (ऊँ द्विजप्रियाय नमः)
  11. Ом Агни-гарбха-чид намах (ऊँ अग्निगर्भच्छिदे नमः)
  12. Ом Индхра-шри-прадаая намах (ऊँ इन्द्रश्रीप्रदाय नमः)
  13. Ом Ваани-прадая намах (ऊँ वाणीप्रदाय नमः)
  14. Ом Авьяая намах (ऊँ अव्ययाय नमः)
  15. Ом Сарва-сиддхи-прадаая намах (ऊँ सर्वसिद्धिप्रदाय नमः)
  16. Ом Сарва-дханаяая намах (ऊँ शर्वतनयाय नमः)
  17. Ом Сарва-прийая намах (ऊँ सर्वप्रियाय नमः)
  18. Ом Сарваатмакая намах (ऊँ सर्वात्मकाय नमः)
  19. Ом сришти-картр намах (ऊँ सृष्टिकर्त्रे नमः)
  20. Ом Двавая намах (ऊँ देवाय नमः)
  21. Ом Анекар-читая намах (ऊँ अनेकार्चिताय नमः)
  22. Ом Шиваая Намах (ऊँ शिवाय नमः)
  23. Ом Шуддхая намах (ऊँ शुद्धाय नमः)
  24. Ом Буддхи-прияая намах (ऊँ बुद्धिप्रियाय नमः)
  25. Ом Шантая Намах (ऊँ शांताय नमः)
  26. Ом Брахма-чарин намах (ऊँ ब्रह्मचारिणे नमः)
  27. Ом Гаджана-наая намах (ऊँ गजाननाय नमः)
  28. Ом Дваи-мадхураая намах (ऊँ द्वैमात्रेयाय नमः)
  29. Ом Муни-стутхаая намах (ऊँ मुनिस्तुताय नमः)
  30. Ом Бхакта-вигхна-винашаная намах (ऊँ भक्तविघ्नविनाशनाय नमः)
  31. Ом Эка-дхандайя намах (ऊँ एकदन्ताय नमः)
  32. Ом Чатур-бхаве Намах (ऊँ चतुर्बाहवे नमः)
  33. Ом Чату-раая Намах (ऊँ चतुराय नमः)
  34. Ом Шакти-сам-йутаая намах (ऊँ शक्ति-सम्युताय नमः)
  35. Ом Ламбходараая намах (ऊँ लम्बोदराय नमः)
  36. Ом шурпа-карнаая намах (ऊँ शूर्पकर्णाय नमः)
  37. Ом Хараайе Намах (ऊँ हराय नमः)
  38. Ом Брахма-видуттамая намах (ऊँ ब्रह्मविदुत्तमाय नमः)
  39. Ом Калаая Намах (ऊँ कालाय नमः)
  40. Ом Граха-патаайе Намах (ऊँ ग्रहपतये नमः)
  41. Ом Каамине Намах (ऊँ कामिने नमः)
  42. Ом Сома-сурьягни-лочанаая Намах (ऊँ सोम सूर्याग्नि लोचनाय नमः)
  43. Ом пашанкуша-дхараая намах (ऊँ पाशाङ्कुशधराय नमः)
  44. Ом Чандхая Намах (ऊँ चण्डाय नमः)
  45. Ом Гуна-тхитая намах (ऊँ गुणातीताय नमः)
  46. Ом Ниранджанаая Намах (ऊँ निरञ्जनाय नमः)
  47. Ом Акалмашая намах (ऊँ अकल्मषाय नमः)
  48. Ом Сваям-сиддхая намах (ऊँ स्वयंसिद्धाय नमः)
  49. Ом Сиддхар-чита-падхам-буджая намах (ऊँ सिद्धार्चितपदाम्बुजाय नमः)
  50. Ом Биджапура-пхала-сактхаая намах (ऊँ बीजापुरफलासक्ताय नमः)
  51. Ом Варадхая намах (ऊँ वरदाय नमः)
  52. Ом Шашватая намах (ऊँ शाश्वताय नमः)
  53. Ом Критин Намах (ऊँ कृतिने नमः)
  54. Ом Видхват-прийая намах (ऊँ विद्वत्प्रियाय नमः)
  55. Ом Витха-бхайая намах (ऊँ वीतभयाय नमः)
  56. Ом Гадхин намах (ऊँ गदिने नमः)
  57. Ом Чакрин Намах (ऊँ चक्रिणे नमः)
  58. Ом Икшу-чапа-дхруте намах (ऊँ इक्षुचापधृते नमः)
  59. Ом Шридаая Намах (ऊँ श्रीदाय नमः)
  60. Ом Аджая Намах (ऊँ अजाय नमः)
  61. Ом Утпхала-караая намах (ऊँ उत्फलकराय नमः)
  62. Ом Шри-патай намах (ऊँ श्रीपतये नमः)
  63. Ом Стути-харши-таая намах (ऊँ स्तुति-हर्षिताय नमः)
  64. Ом Куладри-бхрите Намах (ऊँ कुलाद्रि-भ्रिते नमः)
  65. Ом Джатилаая Намах (ऊँ जटिलाय नमः)
  66. Ом Кали-калмаша-нашаная намах (ऊँ कलि कल्मष नाशनाय नमः)
  67. Ом Чандра-чуда-манайе Намах (ऊँ चन्द्रचूड़मानये नमः)
  68. Ом Кантаая Намах (ऊँ कांताय नमः)
  69. Ом Папахарин Намах (ऊँ पापहारिणे नमः)
  70. Ом Сама-хитхая намах (ऊँ समा-हिताय नमः)
  71. Ом Аашритая намах (ऊँ आश्रिताय नमः)
  72. Ом Шрикарайя Намах (ऊँ श्रीकराय नमः)
  73. Ом Соумьяая намах (ऊँ सौम्याय नमः)
  74. Ом Бхакта-вамчита-дайакаая намах (ऊँ भक्तवान्च्छित दायकाय नमः)
  75. Ом Шантаая Намах (ऊँ शांताय नमः)
  76. Ом Кайвалья-сукхадаая намах (ऊँ कैवल्य-सुखदाय नमः)
  77. Ом Сачида-нанда-виграхая намах (ऊँ सच्चिदानन्दविग्रहाय नमः)
  78. Ом Джнанин Намах (ऊँ ज्ञानिने नमः)
  79. Ом Даяютхайя Намах (ऊँ दयायुताय नमः)
  80. Ом Дандхая Намах (ऊँ दण्डाय नमः)
  81. Ом Брахма-двеша-виварджитаая намах (ऊँ ब्रह्मद्वेषविवर्जिताय नमः)
  82. Ом Праматта-даитья-бхайадаая намах (ऊँ प्रमत्त-दैत्याभयदाय ​​नमः)
  83. Ом Шрикантхайя Намах (ऊँ श्रीकांताय नमः)
  84. Ом Вибудхешварайя намах (ऊँ विबुढ़ेश्वराय नमः)
  85. Ом Рамархитая намах (ऊँ रामार्चिताय नमः)
  86. Ом Видхайе Намах (ऊँ विधाये नमः)
  87. Ом Нагараджа-ягыно-павитаваатхе Намах (ऊँ नागराज यज्ञिनो पवितवाते नमः)
  88. Ом Стхулакантхайя Намах (ऊँ स्थूलकान्ताय नमः)
  89. Ом Сваям-картре Намах (ऊँ स्वयं-कर्त्रे नमः)
  90. Ом Сама-гоша-прийая намах (ऊँ सम-घोष-प्रियाय नमः)
  91. Ом Парасмаи Намах (ऊँ परस्मै नमः)
  92. Ом Стхула-тундхаая намах (ऊँ स्थूल तुण्डाय नमः)
  93. Ом Аграньяая намах (ऊँ अग्रण्याय नमः)
  94. Ом Дхираая Намах (ऊँ धीराय नमः)
  95. Ом Вагишая намах (ऊँ वागीशाय नमः)
  96. Ом Сиддхи-дхаякаая намах (ऊँ सिद्धिदायकाय नमः)
  97. Ом Дхурва-билва-прийая намах (ऊँ दूर्वा बिल्व-प्रियाय नमः)
  98. Ом Авьяктамуртхаайе Намах (ऊँ अव्यक्तमूर्ताये नमः)
  99. Ом Адбхута-мурти-мате Намах (ऊँ अद्भुत-मूर्तिमते नमः)
  100. Ом Шайлендхра-тану-джотсанга-кхеланоцука-манасайа намах (ऊँ शैलेन्द्रतनु-जोत्सन्ग-खेलनोत्सुक-मनसाय नमः)
  101. Ом Свалаванья-судха-сараджитха-манматха-виграхая намах (ऊँ स्वलावण्य-सुधा-सर्जित-मन्मथ-विग्रहाय नमः)
  102. Ом Самастха-джагада-дхараая намах (ऊँ समस्त-जगत्धराय नमः)
  103. Ом Майине Намах (ऊँ मायिने नमः)
  104. Ом Мушика-ваханаая намах (ऊँ मूषक-वाहनाय नमः)
  105. Ом Хриштая намах (ऊँ हृष्टाय नमः)
  106. Ом Туштая намах (ऊँ तुष्टाय नमः)
  107. Ом Прасаннатман намах (ऊँ प्रसन्नात्मने नमः)
  108. Ом Сарва-сиддхи-прадхайакая намах (ऊँ सर्व-सिद्धि-प्रदायकाय नमः)

Рекомендации

  1. ^ Ганешасахасранамастотрам: мула эвам срибхаскарарайакрита ‘кхадйота’ вартика сахита. (Прачья Пракашана: Варанаси, 1991). Включает полный исходный текст и комментарий Бхаскарарая на санскрите.
  2. ^ Шарма, Рам Каран (1993). Ганеша Пурана. Nag Publishers. ISBN  81-7081-279-8.
  3. ^ Подвариант этой аллитерационной версии появляется в книге Садгуру Сант Кешавадаса «Господь Ганеша», Vishwa Dharma Publications, 1988, ISBN  0-685-51012-3.

внешняя ссылка

  • Загружаемая санскритская версия варианта Ганеши Сахасранамы

«В индуистской мифологии «владыка ганы» — божеств, составляющих свиту Шивы. В ведах Ганеша как самостоятельное божество не фигурирует, а титул «Ганапати» принадлежал самому Шиве, или Рудре (Тайт.-самх. IV 5, 4; Майтр.-самх. Ill I, 3). В эпосе и пуранах Ганеша — сын Шивы и Парвати.» (2). Это прославленный писец; он, согласно мифологии, записал «Махабхарату», продиктованную ему мудрецом Вьясой.

«Он изображается с человеческим туловищем красного или жёлтого цвета, большим шарообразным животом, четырьмя руками и слоновьей головой, из пасти которой торчит лишь один бивень.» (2). У него четыре руки (иногда шесть, восемь и может быть даже шестнадцать), изредка — три глаза. Живот опоясан змеей. В сидячей позе он именуется Бала-Ганапати (ребенок Ганапати), тогда у него четыре руки, в которых он держит плод манго, банан, древесное яблоко и кусок сахарного тростника. В образе юноши его называют Таруна-Ганапати, в зрелом возрасте — Вира-Виньеша, и тогда он имеет шестнадцать рук, иногда он сидит на льве, имеет пять голов и восемь рук и называется Херамба-Ганапати. Самое распространенное его изображение, когда он сидит в позе сукх-асана (т.е. с одной ногой, свисающей вниз) на лотосовом пьедестале и держит свою жену на коленях.

«Детали внешнего облика Ганеши получают объяснение в нескольких пуранических мифах. Согласно одному из них, на празднество рождения Ганеши забыли пригласить бога Шани (персонификация планеты Сатурн); из мести тот испепелил взглядом голову младенца, и Брахма посоветовал Парвати приставить ему голову первого же существа, которое ей встретится; таким существом оказался слон. По другому мифу, сам Шива в гневе отрезал голову своему сыну, когда тот не пустил его в покои Парвати; затем, однако, чтобы утешить свою супругу, он приставил к туловищу Ганеши голову находившегося неподалёку слона. Один из своих бивней Ганеша потерял в поединке с Парашурамой: Парашурама пришёл навестить Шиву, но Шива спал, и Ганеша отказался его пустить; тогда Парашурама бросил в Ганешу свой топор и отсёк его правый бивень. По другой версии, Ганеша сам отломал у себя бивень, сражаясь с великаном Гаджамукхой, и бросил его в своего противника; бивень обладал магической силой и превратил Гаджамукху в крысу, которая стала ездовым животным (ваханой) Ганеши. В индуистской мифологии Ганеша почитается как бог мудрости и устранитель препятствий (показательны имена жён Ганеши: Буддхи — «разум» и Сиддхи — «успех»). Ганеша принадлежит к числу наиболее популярных индийских богов; его призывают в помощь, предпринимая любое сколько-нибудь важное дело; изображения и храмы Ганеши широко распространены в Индии, особенно на юге.» (2)

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