Как пишется латвия на латвийском

Латышский (латвийский) язык

1. Общая информация о латышском языке.

Латышский язык является государственным языком Латвийской Республики. Он широко распрострянён в бытовой сфере, является обязательным для использования в законодательной сфере, судопроизводстве, делопроизводстве и образовании. Как показывают статистические данные, в Латвии проживает 1,4 миллиона носителей латышского языка, а еще 140 тысяч — за ее пределами.

Язык латышского народа принадлежит к семье индоевропейских языков, группе балтских языков. Древне балтские племена латгалов, селов, земгалов, куршей и ливов оказали огромное влияние на развитие данной группы языков. По своей структуре и лексическим, фонетическим и грамматическим особенностям близким к латышскому считается литовский язык. Их разделение произошло в VI–VII веках нашей эры, но даже сейчас они имеют множество общих черт.

Латышский язык распадается на 3 основных диалекта (ливский, средний, аугшземский), которые в свою очередь делятся на 512 говоров.

За основу литературного латышского языка взят средний диалект, который более, чем все остальные отображает все особенности древнего формирования латышского, его звуки и интонации.

За всю историю развития латышского языка наблюдалась конкуренция со стороны немецкого и русского языков. Самое заметное влияние русского языка на латышский наблюдается в советский период. До сих пор в стране проживает большое количество русскоговорящих граждан. Это помогает путешественнику из России в Латвии преодолеть языковой барьер, так как он сможет объясниться с местным населением на своем родном языке.

Сегодня латышский язык относят к современному европейскому языку, и является государственным языком Латвийской республики. Им пользуются латыши, представляющие все слои общества. Латышский выполняет самые важные социолингвистические функции в многоэтническом сообществе Латвии.

В Латвии 1,4 миллиона носителей латышского языка, а также около 150 000 за границей. Латышский язык можно даже считать широко распространенным языком, т.е. в мире всего около 250 языков, на которых говорят более одного миллиона человек, и среди них – латышский язык.

2. История латышского языка.

Появление первых письменных документов на латышском языке возникает в 16 – 17 в. Первой печатной книгой считается катехизис, появившийся в 1585 году. Далее была напечатана версия лютеранского катехизиса на латышском языке. Георг Манселиус внёс огромный вклад в создание первого латышского словаря в 1638 году «Lettus». Основоположниками создания латышской системы письма были немецкие монахи, они же являются создателями религиозных текстов. В основе лежала немецкая система письма, однако она не полностью отражала особенности разговорного латышского языка. Тексты этого периода были написаны готическим шрифтом.

Создание в начале XIII века на латыни «Хроники Ливонии» принадлежало католическому священнику Генриху, предположительно, латгалу по происхождению написал на латыни. В книге было дано описание событий, связанных с завоеванием эстонских и ливских земель.

В начале 20 века формируются различные идеи по реформе латышской системы письма. Однако принятой считается система, разработанная Й. Эндзелин и К. Мюленбах. На смену готическому шрифту в новом алфавите приходит латинский. Далее алфавит не претерпевал изменений до включения Латвии в Советский Союз. В последующие годы правительством Латвийской ССР были внесены поправки и буквы r и o, а также лигатура ch, были исключены из латышского письма. С того времени существует два различных варианта латышского письма. Латыши живущие за пределами Латвии продолжают пользоваться системой, существовавшей до 1940 года, в то время как в Латвии используется система с изменениями, внесенными советским правительством. Поэтому до сих пор не предпринято попыток выбрать какую-то одну систему или провести реформу латышского письма.

Большенство букв латышского алфавита взяты из латинского 22 из 33 букв (исключены Q q, W w, X x, Y y), а остальные 11 образованы при помощи диакритических значков.

XVII в. связан с появлением первых светских книг, азбук и др., написанных по-латышски (опять же, непонятно-леттен-это латгальский, латгало-латышский или латышский) священниками-немцами (в 1644 г. вышла первая из них, составленная И. Г. Регехузеном, священником из Айзкраукле), нескольких словарей, отдельных статей, посвященных вопросам правописания.

Благодаря немецким грамматистам фиксировались законы создаваемого латышского языка, описывались сравнительно верные правила морфологии, стабилизировалось правописание. В целом набрался довольно богатый лексический материал. Переводные латышско-немецкие двуязычные словари составляли основную часть. Однако все эти языковедческие работы XVII в. в основном не использовались латышами, зато имели большое значение для иноземцев в Латвии, прежде всего для священников-немцев. В настоящее время этот материал является ценным и незаменимым.

Одним из наиболее ярких и известных представителей латышской духовной литературы XVII в. был немецкий священник Георг Манцель (1593—1654). Долгое время он был священником в сельских приходах, что помогло хорошо овладеть латышским языком. Некоторое время он был профессором теологии Тартуского университета, затем стал его проректором, наконец ректором. В 1638 г. Остаток своей жизни он провёл в своём родном городе, где был придворным священником в Елгаве (Митаве).

Манцель считался одним из наиболее образованных людей Латвии в свое время. Помимо теологии он интересовался также языкознанием, естественными науками, поэзией.

Первым произведением Манцеля, опубликованном на латышском языке является «Латышский катехизис» (Lettisch Vade mecum, 1631). Он представляет собой переработанное и дополненное издание лютеранского пособия.

Главным произведением Манцеля является посвящённый немецким священникам «Долгожданный сборник латышских проповедей» (1654). Он обращяется к ним с просьбой лучше изучить немецкий язык для того, чтобы лучше понимать прихожан.

Христофор Фюрекер (примерно 1615—1685) также внёс огромный вклад в развитие духовной литературы XVII в. В университете в Тарту он занимался изучением теологии, а затем начал работать домашним учителем в поместьях Курземе. Основу его деятельности составляли переводы с немецкого языка большого количества лютеранских церковных псалмов. Он стал основоположником силлабо-тонического стихосложения с различными размерами и ритмами. Также он внёс вклад в копилку материала для латышской грамматики и для немецко-латышского словаря. Его материалы использовались в трудах других авторов.

Он был примером и идейным покровителем для других священников, которые сочиняли и переводили духовные песнопения, но с меньшим успехом. Иоганн Вишман был одним из последователей Фюрекера. В своей книге «Не немецкий Опиц» (1697) он даёт теоретические и практические советы по написанию псалмов. Мнение автора заключается в том, что он считает поэтическое искусство ремеслом, которому каждый может научиться путем непрестанных упражнений. Таким образом, благодаря этой книге появляются первые попытки в области теории латышской поэзии.

Все церковные песнопения Фюрекера и многих его последователей были собраны в конце XVII в. в единую, так называемую «Книгу песен». Она переиздавалась много раз и стала распространенной книгой, которую можно было найти в любом крестьянском доме.

Георг Эльгер — единственный известный католический автор в XVII в.(1585—1672). Им были опубликованы католические псалмы, евангельские тексты, катехизис, однако они не отражали жизнь латышского народа и содержали не очень хороший перевод. Самым крупным произведением Эльгера считается польско-латинско- латышский словарь (Вильнюс, 1683).

Все названные авторы носили немецкую фамилию. Представителем латышей в области латышской духовной литературы XVII в. был лишь один латыш (с немецкой фамилией) — Иоганн Рейтер (1632—1695). Он имел образование в области теологии, медицины и юриспруденции, много путешествовал, прожил бурную жизнь. Им были переведены на латышский язык некоторые тексты Нового Завета, опубликована молитва «Отче наш» на сорока языках. Рейтеру часто приходилось уклоняться от нападок из-за своего происхождения, а также потому, что он осмеливался защищать крестьян от произвола помещиков. Однажды он был даже арестован и удален из прихода.

Одним из лучших переводов Библии в XVII в. считался перевод Библии, выполненный пастором Эрнстом Глюком (1652—1705) и его помощниками. Сначала в Риге появился Новый Завет в 1685 г., а всё издание Библии появилось лишь в 1694 г. Перевод сделан с оригинала (древнегреческого и древнееврейского). Этот первый перевод Библии был очень важным, так как благодаря ему происходила стабилизация орфографии латышского письменного языка.

Основоположником национальной латышской грамматики и поэтики был Г. Ф. Штендер, во 2-й полов. XVIII в. В 1868 И. П. Крауклисом в Риге на русском языке опубликовано “Руководство для изучения латышского языка. Грамматика”. В 1872 г. К. Хр. Ульман опубликовал в Риге “Латышско-немецкий словарь”. Грамматические исследования И. Вельме, в Москве, “О латышском причастии” (1885) и “О троякой долготе латышских гласных (1893); П. Крумберга, “Aussprache lett. Debuwörter” (1881); К. Мюленбаха, по Л. синтаксису (“Daži jautajumi par Latw. walodu”, 1891); Лаутенбаха, Д. Пельца, внесли огромный вклад в развитие грамматики.

Хорошие диалектологические тексты представляют “Latw. tautas dzeesmas” (“Л. нар. песни”), изд. Л. лит. общ. в 1877 г., и образцы говоров в II вып. “Сборника латышских. общин.” в Митаве (1893). “Латышско-русский” и “Русско-латышский” словари изданы Вольдемаром и И. Сирогисом (СПб., 1873 и 1890).

Католики латыши инфлянтских уездов стремились к созданию особого латышского наречия. В 1732 г. в Вильне выходит книга Иосифа Акиелевича, которая раскрывает особенности диалектов вост.-латвиского, зап.-латышского. и курляндского. Затем она была переиздана Т. Коссовским в 1853 г. в Риге.

3. Сравнительный анализ литовского и латышского языка.

Одной из отличительных черт латышского языка от литовского языка является фиксированное ударение на первом слоге (вероят¬но, влияние финно-угорского субстрата). Произошло сокращение долгих гласных в конечных слогах многосложных слов, монофтонгизирование дифтонгов, выпаадение кратких гласных (кроме u). Изменения коснулись и древних тавтосиллабических (относящиеся к одному слогу) сочетаний an>uo, en>ie, in>ī, un>ū; перед гласными переднего ряда согласные k>c, g>dz [ʒ]. Существует противопоставление между задне- и среднеязычными согласными k—ķ, g—ģ. В долгих слогах (т. е. в слогах, содержащих долгие гласные, дифтонги и тавтосиллабические сочетания гласных с m, n, ņ, l, ļ, r) существуют следующие древние слоговые интонации, которые сохранены до сих пор: длительная (mãte ‘мать’), прерывистая (meîta ‘дочь’), нисходящая (rùoka ‘рука’). В морфологии со временем утрачены средний род и формы двойственного числа, древний инструментальный падеж совпал в единственном числе с аккузативом, во множественном числе — с дативом. Исчезли прилагательные с основой на u. Однако определённые и неопределённые формы прилагательных сохранились. Для глагола характерны простые и сложные формы настоящего, прошедшего и будущего времени; неразличение числа в 3 м лице. Глагол имеет оригинальные долженствовательное и пересказочное наклонения. В большинстве случаев зафиксирован свободный порядок слов в предложении, в котором определяемое стоит после определения. Основная часть лексики исконно балтийская. Встречаются заимствования из германских языков, особенно средненижненемецкого (elle ‘ад’, mūris ‘каменная стена’; stunda ‘час’), из славянских, преиму-ще¬ствен¬но русского (bļoda ‘миска’; sods ‘наказание’, grēks ‘грех’), из прибалтийско-финских языков (kāzas ‘свадьба’, puika ‘мальчик’) и т. п.

4. Диалекты

В латышском языке языковедми выделяется три диалекта: среднелатышский (распространен в центральной части Латвии), который также является базой литовского языка; ливонский (распространен на территориях проживания ливов, то есть в северной части Курземе и северо-западной части Видземе) и верхнелатышский (распространен на востоке Латвии). Наиболее сильному влиянию со стороны славянских языков подвержен латгальский язык. За основу современного латышского литературного языка взят среднелатышский диалект. Распространение диалектов на территории Латвии (синий — ливонский диалект, зеленый — среднелатышский, желтый — верхнелатышский).

5. Заимствования

Латышский язык, контактируя с другими языками, развивался не только по своим собственным законам, но и впитывал, заимствовал, приспосабливая под себя лексику и грамматику этих языков. Многие заимствования взяты из Белорусского, литовского, ливского, русского, эстонского языков, так как являлись языками соседних стран и основных торговых партнеров. Так как немецкий, польский, русский, шведский были государственными языками, они становились средством культурного обмена. Религиозные службы велись католиками на латыни. Это многоязычное соседство на протяжении длительного периода влияло на развитие словарного запаса и грамматическую систему латышского языка. В период Средних веков и вплоть до начала ХХ века немецкий язык считался центром государственного управления, науки и образования. Поэтому наибольшее количество заимствований из немецкого языка (около 3000). В последние десятилетия появляется все больше заимствований из английского.

6. Перевод с латышского языка

Выполняя перевод с латышского языка, нужно учитывать ряд особенностей данного языка:

1. Обратите внимание на то, на что в тексте оригинала делается смысловой акцент. Порядок слов в латышском предложении довольной свободный, так что в первую очередь он будет зависеть от смыслового ударения.

2. При переводе на латышский язык помните о следующих особенностях:

• В единственном числе с предлогами возможно употребление родительного, дательного и винительного падежей, а во множественном числе применяется только дательный падеж.

• Творительный падеж единственного числа в подавляющем большинстве случаев совпадает с винительным падежом, а творительный падеж множественного числа — с дательным. Практически всегда он употребляется после предлога ar (с). При этом во множественном числе предлог может быть опущен.

• Звательный падеж существует только в единственном числе. В современном латышском у многих слов звательный падеж совпадает с именительным.

• Определение стоит после определяемого слова. Прилагательные имеют полную и краткую формы, краткая форма склоняется.

3. В латышском необходимо применять вспомогательный глагол (глагол-связку) «быть». Если выраженное сказуемым действие отсутствует, а в предложении содержится утверждение, глагол «быть» формально становится сказуемым.

4. Категория рода в латышском языке представлена только мужским и женским родом. Помните, что среднего рода не существует.

5. В латышском языке как нарицательные существительные, так и имена собственные мужского рода имеют окончание -s. Очевидно, что при переводе имен латышского происхождения окончание -s сохранится. Трудности могут возникнуть при переводе имен иностранного происхождения.

6. Как и в случае с любым другим языком, помните, что ваша задача заключается в передаче смысла, а не в дословном переводе текста. Важно найти в языке перевода смысловые эквиваленты, а не подбирать слова из словаря. При работе с латышским следует обратить внимание на большое по сравнению с другими языками количество архаизмов, которые используются даже в повседневной жизни.

7. В латышском много заимствований из русского и других славянских языков. Однако часть слов пришли в латышский язык много веков назад, слово могло со временем изменить свое значение. Удостоверьтесь, что понимаете его правильно. Даже если слово кажется вам знакомым, проверьте себя по словарю. «Ложные друзья переводчика» есть почти во всех языках.

8. Будьте внимательны при использовании диакритических значков. Из-за отсутствия на большинстве клавиатур диакритиков возник «неофициальный» способ письма по-латышски, где апостроф ставится вместо гачека или седили, а долготу звука показывает двойное написание буквы. Такой способ письма примелем только в неформальных случаях.

7. Интересные факты

Кофе и кава

Грамматический род слова кофе, как и многих других слов, в разных языках не совпадает. Я взял навскидку восемь языков и оказалось, что почти везде в них кофе — женского рода, а в болгарском — среднего.

укр. кава ж. чорна кава (черная)

бел. кава ж. чорная кава (черная)

сербск. кафа ж. бела кафа (с молоком)

болг. кафе ср. чисто кафе (черное)

чешск. kava ж. rozpustna kava (растворимая)

словенск. kava ж. ledena kava (холодная)

польск. kawa ж. kawa pravdziwa (натуральная)

лтш. kafija ж. mana kafija (моя)

лит. kava ж. šviežia kava (свежая)

Больше всего повезло прибалтам, потому что ни в литовском, ни в латышском языках невозможен спор о том, среднего рода кофе или мужского — среднего рода в этих языках

Хлеб по-латышски

«Хлеб».

Рига (Латвия), апрель 2005

Maize хлеб

maizite булочка

pelnīt maizi зарабатывать на хлеб

Любите Latviju

Многие конструкции в латышском языке интуитивно понятны человеку, говорящему на русском.

«Любите Латвию!»

Рига (Латвия), ноябрь 2006

Latviju — винительный падеж слова Latvija, окончание которого (а вместе с ним и произношение всего слова) полностью совпадает с правилами русского языка.

Латышский и латвийский

Название латышского языка часто искажают и говорят «латвийский язык». Поэтому интересно сравнить, как навание звучит на соседних языках. В балтийских и славянских языках выделяется три группы, в пределах которых название приближенно звучит либо латышский, либо латвийский, либо летонский:

рус. латышский язык

укр. латиська мова

чешск. lotyština

польск. język łotewski

латышск. latviešu valoda

болг. латвийски език

литовск. latvių kalba

македонск. латвиски јазик

хорв. letonski jezik

сербск. летонски језик

По-русски допустим только вариант латышский язык.

Белое бельё

Название постельного белья в языках, родственных русскому, происходит от слова белый:

рус. белье (белый)

укр. білизна (білий)

лит. baltiniai (baltas)

лтш. veļa (balts)

Латышский язык почему-то оказался исключением.

Названия соседних стран в балтийских языках

Латышские названия стран заметно отличаются по звучанию и от русских, и от литовских:

рус. латышск. литовск.

Россия Krievija Rusija

Украина Ukraina Ukraina

Белоруссия Baltkrievija Baltarusija

Литва Lietuva Lietuva

Латвия Latvija Latvija

Эстония Igaunija Estija

Польша Polija Lenkija

Интересно, что название Польши по-латышски ближе к русскому, чем к литовскому, тогда как для других стран литовские названия схожи с русскими, а латышские — наоборот сильно отличаются.

Структура названия Белоруссии одинакова во всех трех языках: белый (balts, baltas) + Россия (Krievija, Russija).

Клавиатура и тастатура

Смысл слов тастатура и клавиатура в русском языке различается. Однако, на некоторые языки клавиатура переводится именно как tastatura.

болг. клавиатура

польск. klawiatura

укр. клавіатура

чешск. klávesnice

литовск. klaviatura

лтш. klaviatūra, tastatūra

нем. Tastatur

сербск. тастатура

Большинство приведенных примеров раскладываются на две группы — с основами клавиатур- и тастатур-. Стоит обратить внимание на чешское слово, в котором есть чередование: kláves-. Интересно, что в латышском языке употребляют оба слова: klaviatūra и tastatūra. В русском языке слово тастатура имеет более узкое значение — кнопочный номеронабиратель, т.е. тот, который пришел на смену дисковому на телефонном аппарате. Тастатурой называют и специализированные мини-клавиатуры на приборах.

Vai jūs zināt, ka…

Vai jūs zināt, ka… по-латышски означает знаете ли вы, что…

vai ли

jūs вы

zināt 2 л. ед ч. от zināti знать

ka что

Фраза отличается от русской только тем, что вопросительная частица vai ли стоит в начале предложения, а не после глагола.

Евро

В большинстве стран, где официальная валюта — евро, название пишется Euro и латиницей.

В написании есть два исключения, одно из которых попало на банкноты (это греческое Ευρώ). С греческим названием по-другому быть и не могло, потому что алфавит там не латинский.

О втором исключении мир узнал позже: это латышское Eiro [эйро]. Хотя буквы и латинские, но Европа по-латышски — Eiropa.

Существуют и другие варианты написания, но в странах, где так пишут, евро не является основной валютой:

Евро рус., болг., макед., русск., сербск.

Євро укр.

Еўра бел.

Evro словенск.

Euras лит.

Eŭro эсп.

Т-рубашка

Слово футболка в латышском языке построено по той же схеме, что и в английском:

рус.

рубашка

футболка англ.

shirt

t-shirt лтш.

krekls

t-krekls

А вот в литовском языке футболка futbolininko marškinėliai дословно означает футбольная майка.

Балтийские и славянские названия месяцев

Латышский и литовский языки близки так же, как русский и украинский. И хотя данные языки считаются схожими, но в пределах этих пар есть отличия, например: разные принципы именования месяцев. Более того, образуются перекрестные пары: русский — латышский, украинский — литовский.

Соответствие русских и латышских названий очевидно и комментировать его нет смысла, а вот для литовских я добавил отдельный столбец с переводом.

рус. лтш. лит. лит. знач. укр.

январь janvāris sausis sausas — сухой січень

февраль februāris vasaris vasara — лето лютий

март marts kovas kovas — грач березень

апрель aprīlis balandis balandis — голубь квітень

май maijs gegužė gegutė — кукушка травень

июнь jūnijs birželis beržas — береза червень

июль jūlijs liepa liepa — липа липень

август augusts rugpjūtis rugis — рожь, pjūtis — жатва серпень

сентябрь septembris rugsėjis rugis — рожь, sėti — сеять вересень

октябрь oktobris spalis spaliai — костра жовтень

ноябрь novembris lapkritis lapkritys — листопад листопад

декабрь decembris gruodis gruodаs — замерзшая грязь грудень

Сводная таблица славянских названий месяцев — таблица для названий месяцев на семи языках. Похожие названия выделены цветом и видны сразу.

Литовские названия всех весенних и части летних месяцев происходят от названий птиц. Три литовских названия (июля, ноября и декабря) дословно совпадают с украинскими.

Слово костра — множественное число названия жесткой коры растений костерь.

Спасибо Артуру Мумму за присланную расшифровку литовских названий августа и сентября.

Vaist-

В русском языке слова аптека и лекарство имеют разные корни, а в литовском один — vaist-:

vaistas лекарство

vaistažolė лекарственная трава

vaistinė аптека

vaistininkas аптекарь

vaistininkė аптекарша

Интересно, что в латышском языке лекарство zāles и аптека aptieka имеют разные корни; а слово лекарственный ārstniecības вообще состоит из частей, образующих в итоге значение врачебный.

Балтийский глагол быть

В балтийских языках сохранилась необходимость применять вспомогательный глагол (глагол-связку) быть. Если нет действия, которое выражено сказуемым, а в предложении содержится утверждение, формальным сказуемым становится глагол быть.

Начальная форма этого глагола в латышском языке — būt, в литовском — būti. Как и во многих европейских языках, глагол спрягается по собственным правилам. Ниже показаны варианты глагола в настоящем времени (слева — латышские, справа — литовские).



I л. я, мы

II л. ты, вы

III л. ж. он, они

III л. ж. она, они

ед. ч.

es esmu

tu esi

viņš ir

viņa ir мн. ч.

mēs esam

jūs esat

viņi ir

viņas ir

ед. ч.

aš esu

tu esi

jis yra

ji yra мн. ч.

mes esame

jus esate

jie yra

jos yra



В обоих языках в третьем лице существует единая форма глагола независимо от числа и рода. Формы глагола быть в латышском языке имеют ударение на первом слоге, а в литовском (ударение выделено) в большинстве случаев на последнем (за исключением множественного числа первого и второго лица).

Буква ā в окончаниях

Черта над буквой в латышском языке — garumzīme — как и во многих языках обозначает долгий гласный звук.

В латышском языке черта часто встречается в окончании существительных, стоящих в форме местного падежа. Существительные в этом падеже отвечают на вопрос где? и примерно соответствуют русскому предложному.

«Первая новогодняя елка в Риге в 1510 году». PIRMA JAUNGADA EGLE RIGA 1510 GADA

Рига (Латвия), ноябрь 2006

На показанной надписи три слова оканчиваются буквой Ā. Первое — числительное женского рода, а два других — существительные в местном падеже (иначе он называется локативом). Rīgā переводится в Риге, gadā — в году. «Начальные» формы этих слов — соответственно Rīga и gads. Здесь, кстати, встречается еще и числительное с точкой: 1510.gadā в 1510-м году.

Grūst и vilkt

Два простых латышских слова на дверях: grūst и vilkt, означающие соответственно от себя и на себя.

Слово vilkt тянуть похоже на русское волочь.

Этимология слова grūst менее очевидна; понятно, что грусть тут ни при чем. Помочь может форма единственного числа первого лица gružu толкаю, созвучное русскому гружу. Как и в русском языке, происходит чередование согласных s — ž и з — ж.

Nākt и iet

Латышские слова iet и nākt переводятся на русский парой идти и ходить. Однако между языками есть различие. Хотя и тут, и там по два слова, принцип их использования различается.

В латышском языке употребление слов зависит не от частоты повторения действия, а от направления. Если речь идет о приближении, употребляют nākt, если об отдалении,— iet.

Я еду…

Es nāku no Rīga …из Риги

Es eju uz Rīgu …в Ригу

Интересно, что при этом время употребляется со словом iet (то есть оно отдаляется: laiks iet), а времена года — со словом nākt: gada laiki nāk.

Определительный генетив в латышском языке

В латышском языке есть понятие определительного генетива, которое обозначает конструкцию из пары существительных, первое из которых стоит в родительном падеже и является определением для второго.

Например: piena upe молочная река. Молоко в именительном падеже — piens, в родительном — piena.

В английском такие пары из двух существительных встречаются часто, но там существительные не изменяются по родам. Например: milk river.

Хотя в учебниках пишут, что подобной конструкции не существует в русском языке, я не соглашусь с этим. Подобный способ есть, но он не распространен в речи, требует прилагательного, и существительные стоят в другом порядке. Например: стол красного дерева.

Россия в Прибалтике

В каждой прибалтийской стране пользуются уникальным переводом слов России и русский:

Латышский Литовский Эстонский

Россия

русский

по-русски Krievija

krievu, krievisks

krieviski Rusija

rusas, rusė

rusų, rusiškai Venemaa

vene

vene keel

Латышское название происходит от названия древних кривичей; эстонское (как и финское venaje) — от ванов и венетов; литовцы же называют русских так же, как и сами русские.

Ударение в латышском и литовском языках

Удивительное рядом. Литовский и латышский языки — два, оставшиеся в балтийской группе (третий — несуществующий ныне прусский). Тем не менее, языки заметно отличаются, и нынешний литовский язык, например, более архаичен по сравнению с латышским. Косвенно это проявляется в правилах расстановки ударений.

В латышском языке ударение всегда падает на первый слог; в литовском языке ударение не фиксированное и в разных словах приходится на разные слоги.

Личные местоимения в латышском и литовском языках

Личные местоимения в латышском и литовском языках по сути те же, что и в русском. Те же лица, те же числа. Местоимение второго лица множественного числа вы, как и в русском, часто порываются писать с прописной буквы.

Есть только одно отличие: в третьем лице множественное число имеет две формы — для мужского и женского рода. Если речь идет про лица обоего пола, употребляется местоимение мужского рода.

es я

tu ты

viņš он

viņa она mēs мы

jūs вы

viņi они (муж.)

viņas они (жен.)

aš я

tu ты

jis он

ji она mes мы

jus вы

jie они (муж.)

jos они (жен.)



8. Фонетические особенности латышского языка

Основные отличительные черты фонетического строя современного литовского языка:

1) противопоставление гласных по долготе-краткости;

2) наличие только кратких согласных;

3) наличие дифтонгов и дифтонгичных сочетаний гласных с сонорными согласными (e.g. am, om, in, ir, el и т.д.) перед другим согласным;

4) наличие трех слоговых интонаций в ударном слоге (1 краткой и двух долгих);

5) фонематическое противопоставление твердых и мягких согласных в позиции только перед гласными заднего ряда (ср. аналогичное положение в совр. болгарском языке в славянской группе);

6) обязательная позиционная палатализация согласных перед всеми гласными переднего ряда и другими палатализованными согласными: lydėti ~ «ли:де:ти» (не «лы:дэ:ты», как это произнес бы латыш);

7) переход палатализовнных «t / d» в «č / dž» перед задними гласными: viltis (надежда) ► vilčiai(надежде, д.п.);

ограниченное количество возможных звуков в исходе большинства слов в силу того, что литовские знаменательные части речи (кроме наречий) никогда не выступают в речи в форме чистой основы без флексий.

Гласные

В литовском алфавите 12 гласных букв. Они передают такие звуки:

A a :: [a], [a:] (в некоторых словах только под ударением)

Ą ą :: [a:]

E e :: [æ], [æ:] (в некоторых словах только под ударением), [e] (в заимствованиях)

Ę ę :: [æ:]

Ė ė :: [e:]

I i :: [ɪ]

Į į :: [i:]

Y y :: [i:]

O o :: [o:], [o] (в заимствованиях)

U u :: [u]

Ų ų :: [u:]

Ū ū :: [u:]

Для обозначения долгих гласных в литовском языке используются буквы с крючком. В литовском языке им даётся название «носинес райдес», т.е. «носовые буквы». Однако название это не связыно с носовым произношением, так как в современном языке оно не сохранилось, а компенсировалось долготой. Тем не менее, буквы эти пишут не просто так: в некоторых словоформах носовой согласный может восстанавливаться. Например: kąsti [`kaːsʲtʲɪ] (кусать

Перед «e, ę, ė, i, į, y» все согласные смягчаются, особенно перед теми буквами, что обозначают долгие звуки. Т.е. слово «senas (старый)» звучит не [`sæ:nas], a [`sʲæ:nas] (почти как «сяянас»). Перед гласными заднего ряда на мягкость указывает буква «i» (как и в польском языке): siųsti [sʲu:sʲtʲɪ], akiai [a:kʲæi].

После согласных оппозиция гласных «a, ą ~ e, ę» нейтрализуется (после твердых выступает [a(: )], а после мягких — [æ]/[æ:]). Т.е., сочетания «be» и «bia» произносятся идентично: [bʲæ]. Тем не менее, при смягчении перед «а» литовские «t / d» чередуются по общему их правилу: naktis ► nakčia.

Фонемы [o] и [e] — периферийные: они встречаются только в заимствованных словах и в стилистически окрашенной речи. Краткое [o] встречается в некоторых литовских словах, напр., в имени «Aldona [al`dona]». В современном языке такое произношение заменяется на нормальное долгое.

Из дифтонгов втречаются в исконно литовских словах такие: ai, au, ei, ie, uo, ui. Подробнее об особенностях дифтонгов и дифтонгичных сочетаниях написано ниже (в разделе «Интонация»).

Согласные

У согласных в латышском языке наблюдается общие черты с согласными русского языка. У них нет ни придыханий, ни альвеолярных или ретрофлексных артикуляций, как в некоторых германских языках. Отметим, что в исконно балтийских словах звук [x] перешел в «s»: (лит) sausas ~ (русс) сухой. Звуки «h [h]» и «ch [x]» встречаются только в заимствованиях их других языков: chemija (химия), Praha (город Прага). Тем не менее, перед гласными переднего ряда они поддаются правилам литовской палатализации.

Мягкость согласных, как отмечалось выше — важное фонематическое явление в литовском языке: manas (мой) ~ menas (искусство); rašau (я пишу) ~ rašiau (я писал); siūlau (я предлагаю) ~ siūliau (я предлагал).

Твердые согласные выступают в литовском языке в конце слова, перед твердыми согласными и перед гласными заднего ряда. Характерная для русского языка сильная веляризация твердых для литовского языка не характерна. Поэтому некоторые согласные звучат мягче, «нежнее» русских. Особенно это заметно у согласных «š, ž, l». Твердое «dž» в литовском языке выходит из употребления. Даже слова типа «džazas (джаз)» произносятся «джя:зас». Перед гласными переднего ряда согласные смягчаются по-разному в зависимости от самого гласного. Перед кратким «i [ɪ]» согласные смягчаются слабо. Перед «e [æ] / ė [e:]» смягчение сильнее. Сильнее всего согласные смягчаются перед «į / y [i:]». Иностранные заимствования типа «telefonas» произносятся с мягкими (!) согласными перед передними гласными: «телефонас (не «тэлэфонас»)». Помните также о кратком закрытом «е» и кратком «о» в таких словах. Звук «dz» в литовском языке редкий.

Интонация

В литовском языке ударных слог может быть произноситься с тремя вариантами интонаций: грависная (краткая), акутная (падающая) или циркумфлексная (растущая протяжная). На письме интонации записывают только в учебной литературе.

При употреблении городским населением в речи современного литовского языка различия между акутом и циркумфлексом утрачиваются на монофтонгах и глайде «uo» (также иногда и «ie»). По этой причине, описывая эти интонации, акцент будет делаться на дифтонги и дифтонгичные сочетания.

Краткая интонация встречается только над краткими гласными. Т.е., в словарях значек » ` » сигнализирует о кратком произношении гласного: màno (мое, моя, мои), mamà (мама).

Внимание! Двойные буквы в русских транскрипциях даны не столько для обозначения особой долготы, сколько для указания того, куда делать нажим при произношении.

Акутная интонация, в отличие от традиционного ее использования для растущих тонов, в литуанистике используется для обозначения падающего (!) тона. У дифтонгов и дифтонгичных сочетаний акутная интонация (обозначается как гравис на «u / i»!!!) произносится с более сильным ударением на первом элементе, который звучит четко и ясно: ái «аай», éi «яяй», íe «иэ», áu «аау», él «яял», ìm «им», ám «аам» и т.д.. Примеры слов: láisvas (свободный) — «лаайсвас», áidas (эхо) — «аайдас», láimė (счастье) — «лаайме», véidas (лидо) — «вяяйдас», líepa (липа) — «лиепа», táu (тебе) — «таау», kélmas (пень) — «кяялмас», vaikáms (детям) — «вэйкаамс».

Дифтонг «ui» в акутной интонации почти никогда не встречается.

Циркумфлекс в литовском языке обозначает растущую интонацию, т.е. нажим делается на конечную часть звука. Слог с циркумфлексом звучит протяжно и напряженно. У монофтонгов эта интонация в современном языке не отличается от акутной. А вот у дифтонгов разница ощущается сильно — в силу того, что ударным элементом становится конечный элемент, первые элемент сокращается и уподобляется ему. То есть: aĩ «эии», aũ (оуу), eĩ (еии), iẽ (йяя), uĩ (уии), am̃ (ам), el̃ (ел) и т.д.

Примеры для сравнения:

láisvas (свободный) — «лаайсвас» :: laĩvas (корабль) — «лэиивас»

spáusti (нажать) — «спааусьти» :: Kaũnas (город Ковно) — «коуунас»

véidas (лицо) — «вяяйдас» :: peĩlis (нож) — «пеиилис»

kélmas (пень) — «кяялмас» :: mel̃stis (молиться) — «мельсьтис»

9. Грамматические особенности латышского языка

В области морфологии сохранилось множество архаичных черт, которые преобладают над важными инновациями. Основные черты литовской морфологии:

1) сохранение семи флективных падежей (как и в большинстве славянских) в системе именного склонения (аблатив в балтийских утрачен);

2) наличие трех периферийных агглютинативных локативных падежей (иллатива, адессива и аллатива), которые образовались вторично на финно-угорком субстрате;

3) употребление инессива всегда без предлога;

4) утрата среднего рода именем существительным;

5) наличие полной парадигмы двойственного числа у имени и глагола, которая активно используется диалектально, но выпала из употребления в городах в первой половине 20го века;

6) наличие кратких (именных) и полных (местоименных) форм у имени прилагательного (как и в славянских);

7) утрата склонения у притяжательных местоимений в разговорном и нейтральном письменном стиле;

утрата личных окончаний в 3м лице всех трех чисел у всех глаголов;

9) плохо развитая категория вида (совершенного и несовершенного) в системе глагола;

10) наличие итеративного прошедшего времени (чисто литовское явление);

11) наличие особого императивного суффикса «-k-«;

12) большое количество причастных форм у глагола (больше 10);

13) наличие особых псевдо-пассивных причастий от непереходных глаголов;

14) наличие супина и особой инфинитивной формы;

15) наличие множества аналитических и причастно-пересказывательных форм у глагола;

16) единтсвенная временная форма сослагательного наклонения;

17) несочетаемость предлогов с дательным падежом;

18) конструкция «дательный самостоятельный»;

19) оформление агента в пассивной конструкции, объекта отрицательного сказуемого и объекта супина родительным падежом;

20) употребление родительного падежа в качестве подлежащего;

21) препозиция несогласованного генетивного определения;

22) широкое распространение родительного падежа вместо относительных прилагательных;

23) полное отсутствие категории одушевленности.

Существительное

У существительного в литовском языке имеются такие категории, как род (мужской и женский), число (в диалектах три) и падеж: Vadininkas (именительный), Kilmininkas (родительный), Naudininkas (дательный), Galininas (винительный), Įnagininkas (творительный), Vietininkas (местный), Šauksmininkas (звательный).

Есть 5 склонений и 11 основных парадигм в них:

1) сущ. м.р. на «-as, -is, -ys»;

2) сущ. ж.р. на «-a, -ė, (-i)»;

3) сущ. м./ж.р. на ударенное «-is»;

4) сущ. м.р. на «-us, -ius»;

5) сущ. на «-uo» (их немного и они расщиряют основу, ср. русс. «имя — имени»).

Пример склонения сущ. м.р. 1 гр. «ratas (круг, колесо)» и сущ. ж.р. 2 гр. «varna (ворона)».

N. rãtas ~ rãtai

G. rãto ~ rãtų

D. rãtui ~ rãtams

A. rãtą ~ ratùs

I. ratù ~ rãtais

L. ratè ~ rãtuose

V. rãte! ~ rãtai!

N. várna ~ várnos

G. várnos ~ várnų

D. várnai ~ várnoms

A. várną ~ várnas

I. várna ~ várnomis

L. várnoje ~ várnose

V. várna! ~ várnos!

Отметим, что литовское склонение не ограничивается запоминанием таблицы склонения. Литовские существительные и прилагательные разбиваются на 4 большие группы — классы акцентуации. В зависимости от группы ацентуации ударение при склонении меняет свое качество и перемещается с основы на окончание и обратно, напр: rãtas ► ratè ► rãte! ► rãtams ► ratùs.

Таким образом, встретив новое литовское слово, нужно выучить его в следующей форме: rãtas (1) (2), где значок «тильда» показывает исходное ударение, число (1) указывает на группу склонение, а число (2) — на группу ударения. Только в таком случае, пользуясь комбинированной таблицой склонений и ударений, можно правильно образовать все формы.

Обратите внимание на то, что омонимичные внешне формы могут различаться типом и местом ударения.

Дуалис редок: (N-A-V) dvi varni (G) dviejų varnų (D) dvíem varnom (I) dviẽm varnom (L) dviese varnose.

Прилагательное

Имя прилагательное в литовском языке согласуется с существительным в роде, числе и падеже. В предикативной функции литовские прилагательные сохранили форму среднего рода ед.ч. им.п.: man gera (мне хорошо).

Прилагательные литовского языка склоняются по именному типу с некоторыми местоименными вкраплениями. Кроме того, они образуют полностью местоименные формы с помощью личного местоимения «jis / ji (он / она)». В отличие от русского языка, где эти формы стали фактически единственной формой прилагательного, и латышского, где они употребляются согласно четко определенных правил, в литовском языке данные формы употребляеются довольно редко (в основном в топонимах и застывших названиях). Существительное, снабженное определением в местоименной (определенной) форме, выделяется из ряда себе подобных, т.е. на нем особо акцентируется внимание. Определенная формы прилагательного также употребляется при обращении. Относительные прилагательные в определенной форме почти никогда не выступают.

В литовском языке у прилагательных есть три склонения — на «-as», «-us» и «-is» (относительные): geras (хороший), skanus (вкусный), auksinis (золотой).

Пример склоения прилагательного «mažas (1) (4) (маленький)»:

Singular:

N. mãžas ~ mažàsis; mažà ~ mažóji

G. mãžo ~ mãžojo; mažõs ~ mažõsios

D. mažám ~ mažájam; mãžai ~ mãžajai

A. mãžą ~ mãžąjį; mãžą ~ mãžąją

I. mažù ~ mažúoji; mažà ~ mažą́ja

L. mažamè ~ mažãjame; mažojè ~ mažõjoje

Plural:

N. mažì ~ mažíeji; mãžos ~ mãžosios

G. mažų̃ ~ mažų̃jų; mažų̃ ~ mažų̃jų

D. mažíems ~ mažíesiems; mažóms ~ mažõsioms

A. mažùs ~ mažúosius; mažàs ~ mažą́sias

I. mažaĩs ~ mažaĩsiais; mažomìs ~ mažõsiomis

L. mažuosè ~ mažúosiuose; mažosè ~ mažõsiose

Как видите, перед местоименной флексией собтсвенная флексия прилагательного часто подвергается видоизменениям. Кроме того, есть местоименные формы, которые требуют особого места ударения (независимо от того, к какой группе акцентуации принадлежит прилагательное).

Глагол

Литовский глагол характеризуется исключительным морфологическим богатством. Исландский язык просто нервно курит в сторонке.

Литовские глаголы делятся на три спряжения по типу основы в настоящем и прошедшем времени (она же служит и формой 3го лица во всех числах). Ко второму спряжению относятся некоторые глаголы на «-ėti», к третьему — почти все на «-yti» и некоторые на «-oti».

Основы этих глаголов образуются просто:

2 спряжение: mylėti (любить) ► myli (любит / любят) ► mylėjo (он/она/они любил(-а/-и))

3 спряжение: dažyti (красить) ► dažo (красит / красят) ► dažė (он/она/они красил(-а/-и))

Все остальные глаголы относятся к первому спряжению. И их — большинство. Вот тут-то и начинается веселье с аблаутами, удлинениями и сокращениями гласных, инфиксами, смягчением и прочими ужасами. Что-либо определить по инфинитиву можно научиться, но все равно надо фактически каждый новый глагол учить по словарю.

Основы настоящего и прошедшего времени у этих глаголов имеют «-(i)a» и «-o / -ė». Примеры спряжений:

dirbti (работать) ► dirba ► dirbo

kepti (печь) ► kepa ► kepė

dėti (класть, деть) ► deda ► dėjo

žaisti (играть) ► žaidžia ► žaidė

vogti (красть) ► vagia ► vogė

smogti (бить) ► smogia ► smogė

reikšti (означать) ► reiškia ► reiškė

gerti (пить) ► geria ► gėrė

vilti (разочаровывать) ► vilia ► vylė

plauti (полоскать) ► plauna ► plovė

ginti (гнать) ► gena ► ginė

dygti (прорастать) ► dygsta ► dygo

gimti (рождаться) ► gimsta ► gimė

siųsti (посылать) ► siunčia ► siuntė

kirpti (стричь) ► kerpa ► kirpo

tapti (становиться) ► tampa ► tapo

justi (ощущать) ► junta ► juto

snigti (снежить) ► sninga ► snigo

giedoti (петь) ► gieda ► giedojo

kentėti (страдать) ► kenčia ► kentėjo

kabėti (висеть) ► kaba ► kabėjo

lyti (лить, дождить) ► lyja ► lijo

В каждой из приведенных выше парадигм далеко не один глагол.

Будущее время образуется от основы инфинитива с помощью суффикса «-s». Аналогично образуется прошедшее итеративное с суффиксом «-dav-«. Сослагательное наклонение имеет специфичные формы. Глагол спрягается по лицам и числам. Пример спряженеия в наст., прош., буд. времени и сосл. наклонении (глагол «gerti»):

aš (я) :: geriu, gėriau, gersiu, gerčiau

tu (ты) :: geri, gėrei, gersi, gertum

jis (он) / juodu (они оба) / jie (они) :: geria, gėrė, gers, gertų

(mudu (мы оба) :: geriava, gėrėva, gersiva, gertu(mė)va)

(judu (вы оба) :: geriata, gėrėta, gersita, gertu(mė)ta)

mes (мы) :: geriame, gėrėme, gersime, gertu(mė)me

jūs (вы) :: geriate, gėrėte, gersite, gertu(mė)te

Литовский глагол имеет возвратные формы на «-s(i)»: mes mylimės, jis jaučiasi, aš stengiuosi и т.д..

Имератив имеет особый суффикс «-k-«: sėsk ir ėsk (сядь и ешь)! rašykite (пишите)! Неличные формы глагола образуются от разных основ (инфинитива, настоящего, прошедшего и будущего времени). В мужском роде ед. числа имен. падежа некотрые из них имеют особую стянутую форму. Причастия-прилагательные склоняются в особой парадигме с особой расстановкой ударений.

Основные формы:

Наст.вр. акт.: dirbąs (работающий, ж.р. dirbanti) — суфф. «-nt-«

Прош.вр. акт.: dirbęs (работавший, ж.р. dirbusi) — суфф. «-us-«

Буд.вр. акт.: dirbsiąs (тот, что будет работать, ж.р. dirbsianti) — суфф. «-siant-«

Наст.вр. пасс.: dirbamas (тот, который обрабатывают) — суфф. «-m-«

Прош.вр. пасс.: dirbtas (обработанный) — суфф. «-t-«

Буд.вр. пасс.: dirbsimas (тот, который будут обрабатывать) — суфф. «-sim-«

Полупричастие: dirbdamas (как «работая», только изменяется по родам и числам!) — суфф.»-dam-«

Причатие должествования: dirbtinas (такой, над которым следует работать) — суфф. «-tin-» (инфититив + «-n-«)

Супин: dirbtų (чтобы работать)

Инфтинитив: dirbti (работать)

Инф. II: dirbte (dirbtinai) (передает качетво другого действия, т.е. «работой», «как работа»). Хорший пример: bėgte bėga (бегом бежит).

В современном языке супин употребляется редко и характерен в целом только для книжного стиля.

От форм активных причатий образуются герундии: dirbant (работая), dirbus (работав). В причастных оборотах с такими формами их субъект стоит в дательном падеже (дательный самостоятельный): jam dirbant, visi žiūri (когда он работает, все смотрят).

Пассивный залог никогда не образуется с помощью возвратного «-si»! Для него используются пассивные причастия: ji yra visų mylima (она всеми любима); knyga yra jau parašyta (книга уже написанна). Агент пассивной конструкции стоит в генитиве.

Пассивные причастия (особенно настоящего времени) образуются также и от непереходных глаголов. Они употребляются в первую очередь в форме среднего рода в разноых описательных контсрукциях: jų čia būtą («их тут бывши», т.е. «они тут были»); pas mus lietuviškai kalbama («у нас по-литовски говоримо», т.е. «у нас говорят по-литовски»); čia moterų dirbama («тут женщин работаемо», т.е. «тут работают женщины»).

Активные причастия могут употребляться как сказуемое с эвиденциальным значением: žiniose sakė, kad prezidentas turįs pasirašyti tą dokumentą (в новостях говорили, что президент должен бы подписать этот документ).

Местоимение

Местоимения литовского языка склоняются по падежам, родам и числам. Выборочные примеры склонения:

N. aš (я), tas (тот), jie (они, м.р.), kas (кто, что)

G. manęs, to, jų, ko/kieno

D. man, tam, jiems, kam

A. mane, tą, juos, ką

I. manimi, tuo, jais, kuo

L. manyje, tame, juose, kame

Предлог

Предлоги литовского языка управляют родительным, винительным или творительным падежом. Важные предлоги:

į ką — во что

su kuo — с чем

be ko — без чего

po ko — после чего

po kuo — под чем

už ką — за что

už ko — за чем

pagai ką — согласно чего

pagal ką — относительно чего

ant ko — на что, на чем

apie ką — о чем

aplink ką — вокруг чего

pro ką — мимо чего

per ką — через что

iš ko — из чего

nuo ko — от чего

link ko — по направлению к чему

prie ko — при чём, перед чем

prieš ką — перед чем

po ką — по чему

išilgai ko — вдоль чего

Латышский язык — синтетический. Он имеет развитую систему склонения и спряжения. Несмотря на высокий уровень синтетизма, латышская грамматика проще, чем грамматика родственного литовского языка — в ней более упрощённые парадигмы склонения и спряжения. Например, отмирает творительный падеж, упрощено падежное управление во множественном числе, глагол в сослагательном наклонении имеет только одну форму для всех лиц и обоих чисел на «-tu», тогда как в литовском имеется целый набор окончаний: «-čiau, -tum, -tų, -tume, -tute, -tų». В латышском языке нет среднего рода. Существительные мужского рода имеют окончание s, š, is, us, а женского — a, e, s (редко). В латышском языке есть две формы обращения: официальная и неофициальная. Например, ты (tu) при вежливом обращении превратится в Jūs (Вы). Порядок слов в предложениях — вольный, то есть зависит от того, на какое слово падает смысловое ударение. Так, например, предложение «В стакане — вода» будет выглядеть так: Glāzē ir ūdens, а «Вода в стакане» — так: Ūdens ir glāzē. В латышском языке нет артиклей (то есть «дом» будет māja, а «Он дома» — Viņš ir mājās), однако прилагательные содержат понятие определённости/неопределённости.

Имя существительное

Имеет категории рода, числа и падежа. Родов в латышском языке два — мужской и женский. Чисел также два — единственное и множественное. Падежей семь:

Nominatīvs — именительный : kas? — кто? что? (в латышском нет отдельного вопросительно-относительного местоимения для неодушевлённых предметов)

Ģenitīvs — родительный : kā? — кого? чего?

Datīvs — дательный : kam? — кому? чему?

Akuzatīvs — винительный : ko? — кого? что?

Instrumentālis — творительный : ar ko? — с кем? с чем?

Lokatīvs — местный : kur? — где? (употребляется без предлога)

Vokatīvs — звательный : используется при обращении

Особенности падежной системы:

• во множественном числе с предлогами употребляется только дательный падеж, тогда как в единственном возможны родительный, дательный, и винительный.

• творительный падеж в единственном числе с редкими исключениями совпадает с винительным падежом, а во множественном — с дательным. Употребляется он почти исключительно после предлога «ar — с». Тем не менее, во множественном числе предлог может опускаться: «es apmierināšu tevi ar savu dziesmu ~ es apmierināšu tevi savām dziesmām ::: я успокою тебя своей песней ~ я успокою тебя своими песнями». То есть ar dziesmu ~ (ar) dziesmām.

• звательный падеж образуется только в единственном числе и в современном языке у многих слов совпадает с именительным падежом.

В латышском языке есть 7 типов склонения. Ниже приведено несколько частотных парадигм:

Падеж «zēns(м.р., мальчик)» «brālis (м.р., брат)» «sieva (ж.р., жена)» «upe (ж.р., река)» «zivs (ж.р., рыба)» «ledus (м.р., лед)»

N. zēns brālis sieva upe zivs ledus

Ģ zēna brāļa sievas upes zivs ledus

D zēnam brālim sievai upei zivij ledum

A-I zēnu brāli sievu upi zivi ledu

L zēnā brālī sievā upē zivī ledū

V zēns! brāli! sieva! upe! zivs! ledus!

— — — — — — —

N zēni brāļi sievas upes zivis ledi

Ģ zēnu brāļu sievu upju zivju ledu

D-I zēniem brāļiem sievām upēm zivīm lediem

A zēnus brāļus sievas upes zivis ledus

L zēnos brāļos sievās upēs zivīs ledos

Имя прилагательное

Изменяется по родам, числам и падежам, то есть согласуется с существительным. Имена прилагательные в функции предиката также согласуются с подлежащим в роде и числе.

Интересной особенностью латышского прилагательного является наличие у него полных и кратких форм (ср. русск. «хороша ~ хорошая, хорош ~ хороший»). Эта особенность характерна для большинства балто-славянских языков (кроме болгарского и македонского, где рудиментарно сохраняется окончание полной формы м.р. ед.ч. на «-и», а также украинского и белорусского, где неупотребимы краткие прилагательные). В отличие от русского языка, латышские краткие прилагательные употребляются очень широко и представлены во всех падежах. Употребление полных форм:

• для особого выделения какого-то предмета из ряда себе подобных (то есть аналогично функции определительного члена): baltais zirgs ir jau vecs — (именно та) белая лошадь уже стара

• после указательных и притяжательных местоимений: tas jaunais cilvēks — тот молодой человек

• в звательном падеже: mīļais draugs! — милый друг!

• при субстантивации: klibais ar aklo iet pa ceļu — хромой со слепым идут по дороге

• в титулах: Pēteris Lielais — Пётр Великий

Примеры парадигм:

Падеж м.р. неопр. м.р. опр. ж.р. неопр. ж.р. опр.

N. salds saldais salda saldā

Ģ. salda saldā saldas saldās

D. saldam saldajam saldai saldajai

A.-I. saldu saldo saldu saldo

L. saldā saldajā saldā saldajā

— — — — —

N. saldi saldie saldas saldās

Ģ. saldu saldo saldu saldo

D.-I. saldiem saldajiem saldām saldajām

A. saldus saldos saldas saldās

L. saldos saldajos saldās saldajās

Глагол

Глаголы в латышском языке спрягаются по лицам, числам, залогам и наклонениям. У них есть множество причастных форм.

Как и в литовском языке, латышские глаголы во всех временах имеют одинаковую форму для единственного и множественного числа в третьем лице из-за утраты в этих формах флексий.

Глаголы делятся на спряжения. Основное деление — на первое (исход основы на согласный) и второе (исход основы на гласный) спряжения. Глаголы второго спряжения значительно проще, так как они не претерпевают изменений основы при спряжении. Глаголы первого спряжения пользуются палатализацией, инфиксами, аблаутом и другими средствами при образовании разных форм. Например:

just (чувствовать) — es jūtu (я чувствую) — es jutu (я чувствовал)

likt (класть) — es lieku / tu liec / viņš liek (я кладу / ты кладёшь / он кладёт) — es liku (я клал)

glābt (спасать) — es glābju (я спасаю) — es glābu (я спасал)

Примеры спряжения (глаголы nest (1 спр., «нести») и mērīt (2 спр., «мерить»)):

Лицо Наст. время Прош. время Буд. время

es mērīju mērīju mērīšu

tu mērī mērīji mērīsi

viņš/viņi mērī mērīja mērīs

mēs mērījam mērījām mērīsim

jūs mērījat mērījāt mērīsit

Лицо Наст. время Прош. время Буд. время

es nesu [næs:u] nesu [nes:u] nesīšu

tu nes [nes] nesi nesīsi

viņš/viņi nes [næs] nesa nesīs

mēs nesam nesām nesīsim

jūs nesat nesāt nesīsit

Пересказ, настоящее время (спряжение по лицам и числам отсутствует): es, tu, viņš, mēs, jūs, viņi nesot

Сослагательное наклонение (заметно падение личного спряжения по сравнению с литовским): es, tu, viņš, mēs, jūs, viņi nestu

Повелительное наклонение: nes! nesiet!

Эти основные формы глаголов (образованные от связок) в комбинации с причастиями образуют сложные глагольные формы:

перфект: esmu nesis

перфект пересказа: esot nesis

и т. д.

Примеры причастий:

ziedošs koks — цветущее дерево

noziedējis koks — отцветшее дерево

lasāma grāmata — читаемая книга

izcepta maize — испеченный хлеб

viņš iet domādams — он идет, размышляя

Предлоги и послелоги

В единственном числе латышские предлоги управляют родительным, дательным (всего несколько предлогов) или винительно-творительным падежом. Во множественном числе все предлоги и большинство послелогов (кроме ‘dēļ’, ‘pēc’ (редко)) управляют дательно-творительным падежом.

Ниже приведены основные предлоги и послелоги латышского языка.

Предлоги и послелоги с родительным падежом

aiz — за : aiz kalna (за горой)

bez — без : bez manis (без меня)

dēļ — ради, из-за : manis/mūsu dēļ (из-за меня/нас) этот послелог управляет родительным падежом в обоих числах

no — от, из : no pilsētas (из города)

pēc — по, за, через, после : pēc darba (после работы), pēc maizes (за хлебом), pēc nedēļas (через неделю), pēc plāna (по плану)

uz — на : uz galda (на столе)

pie — при, у : pie mājas (у дома)

virs — над : virs ezera (над озером)

zem — под : zem grīdas (под полом)

pirms — перед : pirms gada (год назад), pirms darba (перед работой)

Предлоги и послелоги с дательным падежом

līdz(i) — до, к. с : man līdzi (вместе со мной), līdz mežam (до леса)

pa — по : pa vienai māsai (по одной сестре)

Предлоги и послелоги с винительно-творительным падежом

ar — с : ar tēvu (с отцом)

par — о, за, чем (при сравнении) : runāt par tēvu (говорить об отце), par ko strādāt (кем работать), par ko vecāks (старше, чем кто), par ko maksāt (платить за что)

pār — через : pār ielu (через улицу)

caur — сквозь : caur logu (через окно)

gar — мимо : gar mežu (вдоль, мимо леса)

starp — между : starp mums / skolu un māju (между нами / школой и домом)

pa — по : pa ceļu (по пути), pa logu redzu … (в окно вижу …), pa dienu (днём)

ap — вокруг : ap māju (вокруг дома)

uz — в, на (о направлении) : uz darbu (на работу), uz pilsētu (в город)

Компания Е-Транс оказывает услуги по переводу и заверению любых личных документов, например, как:

перевести аттестат с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод аттестата с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

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перевести свидетельство о рождении с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства о рождении с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести вкладыш к свидетельству о рождении с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод вкладыша к свидетельству о рождении с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство о браке с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства о браке с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство о перемене имени с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства о перемене имени с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство о разводе с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства о разводе с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство о смерти с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства о смерти с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство ИНН с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства ИНН с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство ОГРН с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства ОГРН с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести выписку ЕГРЮЛ с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод выписки ЕГРЮЛ с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

нотариальный перевод устава, заявления в ИФНС с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод устава, заявлений в ИФНС с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести налоговую декларацию с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод налоговой декларации с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство о госрегистрации с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства о госрегистрации с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести свидетельство о праве собственности с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод свидетельства о праве собственности с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести протокол собрания с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод протокола собрания с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести билеты с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод билетов с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести справку с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод справки с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести справку о несудимости с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод справки о несудимости с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести военный билет с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод военного билета с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести трудовую книжку с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод трудовой книжки с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести листок убытия с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод листка убытия с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести листок выбытия с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод листка выбытия с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

перевести командировочные документы с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением; перевод командировочных документов с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением;

и нотариальный перевод, перевод с нотариальным заверением с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением других личных и деловых документов.

Оказываем услуги по заверению переводов у нотариуса, нотариальный перевод документов с иностранных языков. Если Вам нужен нотариальный перевод с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением паспорта, загранпаспорта, нотариальный с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением перевод справки, справки о несудимости, нотариальный перевод с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением диплома, приложения к нему, нотариальный перевод с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением свидетельства о рождении, о браке, о перемене имени, о разводе, о смерти, нотариальный перевод с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык или с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык с нотариальным заверением удостоверения, мы готовы выполнить такой заказ.

Нотариальное заверение состоит из перевода, нотариального заверения с учётом госпошлины нотариуса.

Возможны срочные переводы документов с нотариальным заверением. В этом случае нужно как можно скорее принести его в любой из наших офисов.

Все переводы выполняются квалифицированными переводчиками, знания языка которых подтверждены дипломами. Переводчики зарегистрированы у нотариусов. Документы, переведённые у нас с нотариальным заверением, являются официальными и действительны во всех государственных учреждениях.

Нашими клиентами в переводах с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык и с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык уже стали организации и частные лица из Москвы, Санкт-Петербурга, Новосибирска, Екатеринбурга, Казани и других городов.

Е-Транс также может предложить Вам специальные виды переводов:

  Перевод аудио- и видеоматериалов с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык и с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык. Подробнее.

  Художественные переводы с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык и с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык. Подробнее.

  Технические переводы с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык и с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык. Подробнее.

  Локализация программного обеспечения с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык и с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык. Подробнее.

  Переводы вэб-сайтов с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык и с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык. Подробнее.

  Сложные переводы с латышского (латвийского) языка на русский язык и с русского языка на латышский (латвийский) язык. Подробнее.

Контакты

Как заказать?

×òî òàêîå «Ëàòâèÿ»? Êàê ïðàâèëüíî ïèøåòñÿ äàííîå ñëîâî. Ïîíÿòèå è òðàêòîâêà.

Ëàòâèÿ ËÀÒÂÈß (Ëàòâèéñêàÿ ðåñïóáëèêà), ãîñóäàðñòâî â Âîñòî÷íîé Åâðîïå, â Ïðèáàëòèêå, îìûâàåòñÿ Áàëòèéñêèì ìîðåì è Ðèæñêèì çàëèâîì. Ïëîùàäü 64,5 òûñ. êì2. Íàñåëåíèå 2596 òûñ. ÷åëîâåê, ãîðîäñêîå 71%; ëàòûøè (52%), ðóññêèå (34%), áåëîðóñû (4,5%), óêðàèíöû, ïîëÿêè è äðóãèå. Îôèöèàëüíûé ÿçûê — ëàòûøñêèé. Âåðóþùèå — ïðîòåñòàíòû, ïðàâîñëàâíûå, êàòîëèêè. Ãëàâà ãîñóäàðñòâà — ïðåçèäåíò. Çàêîíîäàòåëüíûé îðãàí — ñåéì. Ñòîëèöà — Ðèãà. 26 ðàéîíîâ, 56 ãîðîäîâ, 37 ïîñåëêîâ ãîðîäñêîãî òèïà. Äåíåæíàÿ åäèíèöà — ëàò. Áîëüøàÿ ÷àñòü òåððèòîðèè — ìîðåííàÿ ðàâíèíà; â öåíòðàëüíîé ÷àñòè — Âèäçåìñêàÿ âîçâûøåííîñòü (âûñîòà äî 311 ì, ãîðà Ãàéçèíüêàëíñ), íà çàïàäå è âîñòîêå — õîëìèñòûå âîçâûøåííîñòè (Êóðçåìñêàÿ è Ëàòãàëüñêàÿ). Êëèìàò ïåðåõîäíûé îò ìîðñêîãî ê êîíòèíåíòàëüíîìó. Ñðåäíèå òåìïåðàòóðû ÿíâàðÿ îò — 2 äî — 7øC, èþëÿ 16 — 18øC; îñàäêîâ 500 — 800 ìì â ãîä. Ãëàâíàÿ ðåêà — Äàóãàâà (Çàïàäíàÿ Äâèíà); ìíîãî îçåð; 1/3 òåððèòîðèè ïîêðûòà ëåñîì. Íàöèîíàëüíûé ïàðê Ãàóÿ. Çàïîâåäíèêè: Ãðèíè, Ìîðèöñàëà, Ñëèòåðå è äð.  10 — 13 ââ. íà òåððèòîðèè Ëàòâèè âîçíèêëè ïåðâûå êíÿæåñòâà (Êîêíåñå, Åðñèêà, Òàëàâà).  13 — 16 ââ. ïîä âëàñòüþ íåìåöêèõ çàâîåâàòåëåé.  1562 ÷àñòü òåððèòîðèè Ëàòâèè ðàçäåëåíà ìåæäó Ïîëüøåé è Øâåöèåé.  1721 è 1795 ïðèñîåäèíåíà ê Ðîññèè (Êóðëÿíäñêàÿ, ÷àñòè Ëèôëÿíäñêîé è Âèòåáñêîé ãóáåðíèè). 17.12.1918 â Ëàòâèè ïðîâîçãëàøåíà ñîâåòñêàÿ âëàñòü. Ñ íà÷àëà 1920 íåçàâèñèìàÿ Ëàòâèéñêàÿ ðåñïóáëèêà.  àâãóñòå 1920 ïîäïèñàí ñîâåòñêî-ëàòâèéñêèé ìèðíûé äîãîâîð.  ìàå 1934 ñîâåðøåí ãîñóäàðñòâåííûé ïåðåâîðîò, óñòàíîâëåíà äèêòàòóðà: çàïðåùåíû ïîëèòè÷åñêèå ïàðòèè, ïðîôñîþçû, ðàáî÷èå îðãàíèçàöèè, ðàñïóùåí ñåéì.  èþëå 1940 íà òåððèòîðèþ Ëàòâèè ââåäåíû ñîâåòñêèå âîéñêà; 21.7.1940 îáðàçîâàíà Ëàòâèéñêàÿ ÑÑÐ, 5.8.1940 ïðèñîåäèíåíà ê ÑÑÑÐ.  1941 — 45 îêêóïèðîâàíà íåìåöêî-ôàøèñòñêèìè âîéñêàìè.  ìàå 1990 Âåðõîâíûé Ñîâåò ðåñïóáëèêè ïðèíÿë Äåêëàðàöèþ î åå íåçàâèñèìîñòè. Ëàòâèÿ — èíäóñòðèàëüíî-àãðàðíàÿ ñòðàíà. Âàëîâîé íàöèîíàëüíûé ïðîäóêò íà äóøó íàñåëåíèÿ 3410 äîëëàðîâ â ãîä. Âåäóùèå îòðàñëè ïðîìûøëåííîñòè — ìàøèíîñòðîåíèå è ìåòàëëîîáðàáîòêà (ýëåêòðîòåõíè÷åñêàÿ, ýíåðãåòè÷åñêàÿ, ðàäèîýëåêòðîííàÿ ïðîìûøëåííîñòü, ïðîèçâîäñòâî ñðåäñòâ ñâÿçè è ïðèáîðîñòðîåíèå, òðàíñïîðòíîå è ñåëüñêîõîçÿéñòâåííîå ìàøèíîñòðîåíèå), õèìè÷åñêàÿ è íåôòåõèìè÷åñêàÿ, ëåãêàÿ (òåêñòèëüíàÿ, òðèêîòàæíàÿ è äðóãèå), ïèùåâàÿ (ìÿñî-ìîëî÷íàÿ, ðûáíàÿ è äðóãèå), öåëëþëîçíî-áóìàæíàÿ; ïðîèçâîäñòâî ôàðìàöåâòè÷åñêîé, ïàðôþìåðíî-êîñìåòè÷åñêîé ïðîäóêöèè. Ðàçâèòû õóäîæåñòâåííûå ïðîìûñëû (îáðàáîòêà êîæè, ÿíòàðÿ, ðåçüáà ïî äåðåâó, âûøèâêà). Ãëàâíàÿ îòðàñëü ñåëüñêîãî õîçÿéñòâà — æèâîòíîâîäñòâî (ìîëî÷íî-ìÿñíîå ñêîòîâîäñòâî è áåêîííîå ñâèíîâîäñòâî). Ïîñåâû çåðíîâûõ è êîðìîâûõ êóëüòóð. Êàðòîôåëåâîäñòâî, îâîùåâîäñòâî. Ï÷åëîâîäñòâî, çâåðîâîäñòâî. Ýêñïîðò: ïðîäóêöèÿ ìàøèíîñòðîåíèÿ, ëåãêîé è ïèùåâîé ïðîìûøëåííîñòè. Ìîðñêîé ïîðòû: Ðèãà, Âåíòñïèëñ, Ëèåïàÿ. Ñóäîõîäñòâî ïî ðåêàì Ëèåëóïå è Äàóãàâà. Êóðîðòû: Þðìàëà, Ëèåïàÿ, Êåìåðè, Áàëäîíå è äðóãèå.

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Используйте наш список основных выражений на латышском как маленький словарь для путешественника. Распечатайте его и положите в чемодан.

Источник

Palīgā! 1. sērija. фильм для изучающих латышский

Как перевести на латышский язык адрес, написанный на русском? Вообще переводится? (вн)

Так и писать — ул.Труда №5, кв. 105
Pasta sūtījumu adresēšana
Uz starptautiskajiem pasta sūtījumiem adresi raksta izsniegšanas vietas valsts vai arī citā šajā valstī zināmā valodā, vai franču valodā, valsts nosaukumu uzrādot latīņu burtiem.Uz Amerikas Savienotajām Valstīm visa adrese jāraksta drukātiem burtiem.
http://www.pasts.lv/lv/privatpersonas/pasta_sutijumi/adreseshana.html

Ответы

ovod (74) 7 (86376) 8 18 75 8 лет

Название улицы ни в коем случае нельзя переводить, ее же в таком виде ни один почтальон не найдет.
Если адрес пишется латинскими буквами (а в Латвии так и надо), то улицу Труда надо писать Truda.

Имя собственное не переводится. Пора уже знать.

http://translate.meta.ua/ru/?noredir
В ДАЛЬНЕЙШЕМ НЕ ПОЛЕНИТЕСЬ В ИНЕТЕ ПОИСКАТЬ ПЕРЕВОДЧИК.

Гришандр (25) 6 (18157) 2 6 28 8 лет

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Почтовый индекс

KS- канзас
66547 это зип код
Apt- апартаменты номер 23
а вообще как адрес есть так его и пиши, ничего не выкидывай

В салоне.
В Риге:

Латышский язык? Сейчас объясню!

Vadim Tattoo — хороший салон;
Адрес: Kr.Barona 60;
Москва:
1. Салон Шарм.
Адрес: Пересечение Первомайской и 3 Парковой улиц.
2. На Пушкинской (метро) есть магазин Бриг, там работает парень, очень хорошо прокалывает. Ссылка на их услуги:
http://www.mlove.ru/forum/topic5891.html

tolko na angliiskom,na koreiskom ne primut na nawei po4te.
esli est risk sto na toi storone ne znajut angliiskogo pe4aew etiketku s koreiskim adresom i prikleeviaew toze.

Источник

Латвия ввела новые ограничения для проживающих там россиян

Россиянам, которые проживают в Латвии, не будут продлевать виды на жительство. Кроме того, рабочие визы тоже выдаваться не будут. Решение об этом принял парламент страны.

«Уже выданные россиянам виды на жительство будут теперь действовать только до 1 сентября 2023 года. Для их продления нужно будет подтвердить владение латышским языком», — говорится на официальном сайте Латвийского телевидения.

Таким образом, возможность продления вида на жительство для граждан РФ на основании сделанных инвестиций или приобретения недвижимости в Латвии прекращена. Ограничения коснулись и граждан Белоруссии. Исключения — это воссоединение семьи, международная защита или гуманитарные соображения.

Россия начала спецоперацию по демилитаризации и денацификации Украины в конце февраля этого года. В ответ на это Евросоюз ввел санкции, в числе которых — приостановка действия соглашения об упрощении выдачи виз между Россией и ЕС. При этом Еврокомиссия обсуждает с ЕС получение гуманитарных виз для россиян из-за объявленной в РФ мобилизации, уточняет MK.RU. При этом Латвия не будет выдавать визы россиянам, которые уклоняются от мобилизации, передает «Федеральное агентство новостей».

Россиянам, которые проживают в Латвии, не будут продлевать виды на жительство. Кроме того, рабочие визы тоже выдаваться не будут. Решение об этом принял парламент страны. «Уже выданные россиянам виды на жительство будут теперь действовать только до 1 сентября 2023 года.

Для их продления нужно будет подтвердить владение латышским языком», — говорится на официальном сайте Латвийского телевидения. Таким образом, возможность продления вида на жительство для граждан РФ на основании сделанных инвестиций или приобретения недвижимости в Латвии прекращена. Ограничения коснулись и граждан Белоруссии.

Исключения — это воссоединение семьи, международная защита или гуманитарные соображения. Россия начала спецоперацию по демилитаризации и денацификации Украины в конце февраля этого года. В ответ на это Евросоюз ввел санкции, в числе которых — приостановка действия соглашения об упрощении выдачи виз между Россией и ЕС. При этом Еврокомиссия обсуждает с ЕС получение гуманитарных виз для россиян из-за объявленной в РФ мобилизации, уточняет MK.RU. При этом Латвия не будет выдавать визы россиянам, которые уклоняются от мобилизации, передает «Федеральное агентство новостей».

Источник

«Lettonia» redirects here. For the Latvian student corporation, see Lettonia (corporation).

Coordinates: 57°N 25°E / 57°N 25°E

Republic of Latvia Latvijas Republika (Latvian) Latvejas Republika (Latgalian) Lețmō Vabāmō (Livonian)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Dievs, svētī Latviju! (Latvian) («God Bless Latvia!»)
Location of Latvia (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend]
Capital and largest city	Riga 56°57′N 24°6′E / 56.950°N 24.100°E
Official languages	Latviana
Recognized languages	Livonian Latgalian
Ethnic groups (2022[1])	63.0% Latvians 24.2% Russians 3.1% Belarusians 2.2% Ukrainians 1.9% Poles 1.1% Lithuanians 0.3% Roma 0.2% Jews 4% Others / Unspecified
Religion (2018)[2]	64% Christianity • 36% Lutheranism • 17% Catholicism • 9% Orthodoxy • 2% Other Christian 35% No religion 1% Others
Demonym(s)	Latvian
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic
• President	Egils Levits
• Prime Minister	Krišjānis Kariņš
• Speaker of the Saeima	Edvards Smiltēns
Legislature	Saeima
Independence  from Germany and the Soviet Union
• Declared[3]	18 November 1918
• Recognised	26 January 1921
• Constitution adopted	7 November 1922
• Restored after Soviet occupation[4]	21 August 1991
• Joined the EU	1 May 2004
Area
• Total	64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) (122nd)
• Water (%)	2.09 (2015)[5]
Population
• 2022 estimate	1,842,226[6] (153rd)
• Density	29.6/km2 (76.7/sq mi) (147th)
GDP (PPP)	2022 estimate
• Total	$72.03billion[7] (105th)
• Per capita	$38,124[7] (48th)
GDP (nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	$40.588 billion[7] (100th)
• Per capita	$21,482[7] (44th)
Gini (2021)	35.7[8] medium
HDI (2021)	0.863[9] very high · 39th
Currency	Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Driving side	right
Calling code	+371
ISO 3166 code	LV
Internet TLD	.lvc
Latvian is the sole official language.[10][11] Livonian is considered an indigenous language and has special legal status.[12] Latgalian written language and Latvian Sign Language also have special legal status.[13] Latvia is de jure continuous with its declaration of 18 November 1918. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

Latvia ( or ; Latvian: Latvija [ˈlatvija]; Latgalian: Latveja; Livonian: Lețmō), officially the Republic of Latvia^[14] (Latvian: Latvijas Republika, Latgalian: Latvejas Republika, Livonian: Lețmō Vabāmō), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the Baltic states; and is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Belarus to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Latvia covers an area of 64,589 km² (24,938 sq mi), with a population of 1.9 million. The country has a temperate seasonal climate.^[15] Its capital and largest city is Riga. Latvians belong to the ethno-linguistic group of the Balts and speak Latvian, one of the only two^[a] surviving Baltic languages. Russians are the most prominent minority in the country, at almost a quarter of the population.

After centuries of Teutonic, Swedish, Polish-Lithuanian and Russian rule, which was mainly executed by the local Baltic German aristocracy, the independent Republic of Latvia was established on 18 November 1918 when it broke away from the German Empire and declared independence in the aftermath of World War I.^[3] However, by the 1930s the country became increasingly autocratic after the coup in 1934 establishing an authoritarian regime under Kārlis Ulmanis.^[16] The country’s de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II, beginning with Latvia’s forcible incorporation into the Soviet Union, followed by the invasion and occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941, and the re-occupation by the Soviets in 1944 to form the Latvian SSR for the next 45 years. As a result of extensive immigration during the Soviet occupation, ethnic Russians became the most prominent minority in the country, now constituting nearly a quarter of the population. The peaceful Singing Revolution started in 1987, and ended with the restoration of de facto independence on 21 August 1991.^[17] Since then, Latvia has been a democratic unitary parliamentary republic.

Latvia is a developed country, with a high-income advanced economy; ranking very high 39th in the Human Development Index. It performs favorably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, living standards, and peacefulness. Latvia is a member of the European Union, Eurozone, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the International Monetary Fund, the Nordic-Baltic Eight, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the World Trade Organization.

Etymology

The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes (along with Curonians, Selonians and Semigallians), which formed the ethnic core of modern Latvians together with the Finnic Livonians.^[18] Henry of Latvia coined the latinisations of the country’s name, «Lettigallia» and «Lethia», both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the country’s name in Romance languages from «Letonia» and in several Germanic languages from «Lettland».^[19]

History

Around 3000 BC, the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea.^[20] The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals.^[21] By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: kurši, latgaļi, sēļi and zemgaļi), as well as the Finnic tribe of Livonians (lībieši) speaking a Finnic language.^{[citation needed]}

In the 12th century in the territory of Latvia, there were lands with their rulers: Vanema, Ventava, Bandava, Piemare, Duvzare, Sēlija, Koknese, Jersika, Tālava and Adzele.^[22]

Medieval period

Although the local people had contact with the outside world for centuries, they became more fully integrated into the European socio-political system in the 12th century.^[23] The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.^[24] The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as the Church had hoped.^[24]

German crusaders were sent, or more likely decided to go on their own accord as they were known to do. Saint Meinhard of Segeberg arrived in Ikšķile, in 1184, traveling with merchants to Livonia, on a Catholic mission to convert the population from their original pagan beliefs. Pope Celestine III had called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193. When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians by force of arms.^[25]

At the beginning of the 13th century, Germans ruled large parts of what is currently Latvia.^[24] The influx of German crusaders in the present-day Latvian territory especially increased in the second half of the 13th century following the decline and fall of the Crusader States in the Middle East.^[26] Together with southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana (Medieval Latin for «Land of Mary») or Livonia.^[27] In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera, became part of the Hanseatic League.^[24] Riga became an important point of east–west trading^[24] and formed close cultural links with Western Europe.^[28] The first German settlers were knights from northern Germany and citizens of northern German towns who brought their Low German language to the region, which shaped many loanwords in the Latvian language.^[29]

Reformation period and Polish and Swedish rule

After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Northern Latvia & Southern Estonia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule.^[24] The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Duchy of Livonia (Ducatus Livoniae Ultradunensis). Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia, formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia.^[30] Though the duchy was a vassal state to Lithuanian Grand Duchy and later of Polish and Lithuanian commonwealth, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 16th century. Latgalia, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.^[31]

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia struggled for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish–Swedish War, northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Riga became the capital of Swedish Livonia and the largest city in the entire Swedish Empire.^[32] Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629.^{[33][citation needed]} In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished.^[34][35]

Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion.^[36] The ancient tribes of the Couronians, Semigallians, Selonians, Livs, and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people, speaking one Latvian language.^[37][38] Throughout all the centuries, however, an actual Latvian state had not been established, so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Latvia, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.^[39]

Livonia & Courland in the Russian Empire (1795–1917)

During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), up to 40 percent of Latvians died from famine and plague.^[40] Half the residents of Riga were killed by plague in 1710–1711.^[41] The capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad, ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate).^{[citation needed]} The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was incorporated into Russia. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a vassal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was annexed by Russia in 1795 in the Third Partition of Poland, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian Empire. All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, German as the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag.^{[citation needed]}

The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819.^{[citation needed][42]} In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility,^{[citation needed]} as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates «of their own free will».^{[citation needed]}

During these two centuries Latvia experienced economic and construction boom – ports were expanded (Riga became the largest port in the Russian Empire), railways built; new factories, banks, and a university were established; many residential, public (theatres and museums), and school buildings were erected; new parks formed; and so on. Riga’s boulevards and some streets outside the Old Town date from this period.^{[citation needed]}

Numeracy was also higher in the Livonian and Courlandian parts of the Russian Empire, which may have been influenced by the Protestant religion of the inhabitants.^[43]

National awakening

During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically.^[44] A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained, quite a lot Latvians left for the cities and sought for education, industrial jobs.^[44] There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie.^[44] The Young Latvian (Latvian: Jaunlatvieši) movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order.^[45][46] The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National Awakening.^[45] Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s.^{[citation needed]} The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s.^[47] Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces.^[48]

Declaration of independence and interwar period

World War I devastated the territory of what became the state of Latvia, and other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands for self-determination were initially confined to autonomy, until a power vacuum was created by the Russian Revolution in 1917, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany in March 1918, then the Allied armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918. On 18 November 1918, in Riga, the People’s Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country and Kārlis Ulmanis was entrusted to set up a government and he took the position of Prime Minister.^[49]

The General representative of Germany August Winnig formally handed over political power to the Latvian Provisional Government on 26 November. On 18 November, the Latvian People’s Council entrusted him to set up the government. He took the office of Minister of Agriculture from 18 November to 19 December. He took a position of Prime Minister from 19 November 1918 to 13 July 1919.

The war of independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe. By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments: the Provisional government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis, supported by the Tautas padome and the Inter-Allied Commission of Control; the Latvian Soviet government led by Pēteris Stučka, supported by the Red Army; and the Provisional government headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit Iron Division.^{[citation needed]}

Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919,^[50] and a massive attack by a predominantly German force—the West Russian Volunteer Army—under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective the Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish–Soviet War).^{[citation needed]}

A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on 1 May 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme, in February 1922.^[51] The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934 but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia’s industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.^[52]

By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of the Great Depression. Latvia showed signs of economic recovery, and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period.^{[citation needed]} On 15 May 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.^[53] After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of «Latvianising» the economy.^[54]

Latvia in World War II

Early in the morning of 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.^[55] The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany’s defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet «spheres of influence».^[56] In the north, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.^[56] A week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; on 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well.^[57]: 32

After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis’s government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich programme.^[58] In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in Latvia.^[58] Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement scheme was agreed.^[59] The racially approved being resettled mainly in Poland, being given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous assets.^[57]: 46

On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a «mutual assistance» pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.^[60]
State administrators were murdered and replaced by Soviet cadres.^[61] Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions. The resulting people’s assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which the Soviet Union granted.^[61] Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins.^[62] The Soviet Union incorporated Latvia on 5 August 1940, as the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic.

The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to Operation Barbarossa, in less than a year, at least 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.^[63] Most were deported to Siberia where deaths were estimated at 40 percent.^[57]: 48

On 22 June 1941, German troops attacked Soviet forces in Operation Barbarossa.^[64] There were some spontaneous uprisings by Latvians against the Red Army which helped the Germans. By 29 June Riga was reached and with Soviet troops killed, captured or retreating, Latvia was left under the control of German forces by early July.^{[65][57]: 78–96} The occupation was followed immediately by SS Einsatzgruppen troops, who were to act in accordance with the Nazi Generalplan Ost that required the population of Latvia to be cut by 50 percent.^{[57]: 64 [57]: 56}

Under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland.^[66] Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust and other atrocities.^[53] 30,000 Jews were shot in Latvia in the autumn of 1941.^[57]: 127 Another 30,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto were killed in the Rumbula Forest in November and December 1941, to reduce overpopulation in the ghetto and make room for more Jews being brought in from Germany and the West.^[57]: 128 There was a pause in fighting, apart from partisan activity, until after the siege of Leningrad ended in January 1944, and the Soviet troops advanced, entering Latvia in July and eventually capturing Riga on 13 October 1944.^[57]: 271

More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation.^[53] Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, mainly on the German side, with 140,000 men in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS,^[67] The 308th Latvian Rifle Division was formed by the Red Army in 1944. On occasions, especially in 1944, opposing Latvian troops faced each other in battle.^[57]: 299

In the 23rd block of the Vorverker cemetery, a monument was erected after the Second World War for the people of Latvia who had died in Lübeck from 1945 to 1950.

Soviet era (1940–1941, 1944–1991)

In 1944, when Soviet military advances reached Latvia, heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended in another German defeat. In the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation’s «live resources». In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender, it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stay, and Latvian national partisans, soon joined by some who had collaborated with the Germans, began to fight against the new occupier.^[68]

Anywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.^[69] Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving Latvia, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war,^[70] returned by the West.^[71]
The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivised
and Sovietised.^[53]

On 25 March 1949, 43,000 rural residents («kulaks») and Latvian nationalists were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on 29 January 1949.^[72] This operation had the desired effect of reducing the anti-Soviet partisan activity.^[57]: 326 Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag) in the post-war years from 1945 to 1952.^[73]

In the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivization.^[74] An extensive program to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.^[75] An influx of new colonists, including laborers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started. By 1959 about 400,000 Russian settlers arrived and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.^[76]

Since Latvia had maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union’s most advanced manufacturing in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine—and some food and oil processing plants.^[77] Latvia manufactured trains, ships, minibuses, mopeds, telephones, radios and hi-fi systems, electrical and diesel engines, textiles, furniture, clothing, bags and luggage, shoes, musical instruments, home appliances, watches, tools and equipment, aviation and agricultural equipment and long list of other goods. Latvia had its own film industry and musical records factory (LPs). However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories.^{[citation needed]} To maintain and expand industrial production, skilled workers were migrating from all over the Soviet Union, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.^[78] The population of Latvia reached its peak in 1990 at just under 2.7 million people.

In late 2018 the National Archives of Latvia released a full alphabetical index of some 10,000 people recruited as agents or informants by the Soviet KGB. ‘The publication, which followed two decades of public debate and the passage of a special law, revealed the names, code names, birthplaces and other data on active and former KGB agents as of 1991, the year Latvia regained its independence from the Soviet Union.’^[79]

Restoration of independence in 1991

In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union that were called glasnost and perestroika. In the summer of 1987, the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument—a symbol of independence. In the summer of 1988, a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia, was opposed by the Interfront. The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988, the old pre-war Flag of Latvia flew again, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990.^[80][81]

In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the Occupation of the Baltic states, in which it declared the occupation «not in accordance with law», and not the «will of the Soviet people». Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic elections. On 4 May 1990, the Supreme Council adopted the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, and the Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia.^[82]

However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as a Soviet republic in 1990 and 1991. In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions. During the transitional period, Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia.^[82]

The Popular Front of Latvia advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenship, however, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted. Instead, citizenship was granted to persons who had been citizens of Latvia on the day of loss of independence in 1940 as well as their descendants. As a consequence, the majority of ethnic non-Latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship since neither they nor their parents had ever been citizens of Latvia, becoming non-citizens or citizens of other former Soviet republics. By 2011, more than half of non-citizens had taken naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship, but in 2015 there were still 290,660 non-citizens in Latvia, which represented 14.1% of the population. They have no citizenship of any country, and cannot participate in the parliamentary elections.^[83] Children born to non-nationals after the re-establishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.

The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on 21 August 1991, in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attempt.^[4] Latvia resumed diplomatic relations with Western states, including Sweden.^[84] The Saeima, Latvia’s parliament, was again elected in 1993. Russia ended its military presence by completing its troop withdrawal in 1994 and shutting down the Skrunda-1 radar station in 1998. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004. The NATO Summit 2006 was held in Riga.^[85] Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was President of Latvia from 1999 until 2007. She was the first female head of state in the former Soviet block state and was active in Latvia joining both NATO and the European Union in 2004.^[86]

Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian; less than 1% of non-citizens are Latvian, while 71% are Russian.^[87] The government denationalized private property confiscated by the Soviets, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatized most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia is one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union. In 2014, Riga was the European Capital of Culture,^[88] Latvia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency euro as the currency of the country^[89] and Latvian Valdis Dombrovskis was named vice-president of the European Commission.^[90] In 2015 Latvia held the presidency of Council of the European Union.^[91] Big European events have been celebrated in Riga such as the Eurovision Song Contest 2003^[92] and the European Film Awards 2014.^[93] On 1 July 2016, Latvia became a member of the OECD.^[94]

Geography

Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea and northwestern part of the East European Craton (EEC), between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°). Latvia has a total area of 64,559 km² (24,926 sq mi) of which 62,157 km² (23,999 sq mi) land, 18,159 km² (7,011 sq mi) agricultural land,^[95] 34,964 km² (13,500 sq mi) forest land^[96] and 2,402 km² (927 sq mi) inland water.^[97]

The total length of Latvia’s boundary is 1,866 km (1,159 mi). The total length of its land boundary is 1,368 km (850 mi), of which 343 km (213 mi) is shared with Estonia to the north, 276 km (171 mi) with the Russian Federation to the east, 161 km (100 mi) with Belarus to the southeast and 588 km (365 mi) with Lithuania to the south. The total length of its maritime boundary is 498 km (309 mi), which is shared with Estonia, Sweden and Lithuania. Extension from north to south is 210 km (130 mi) and from west to east 450 km (280 mi).^[97]

Most of Latvia’s territory is less than 100 m (330 ft) above sea level. Its largest lake, Lubāns, has an area of 80.7 km² (31.2 sq mi), its deepest lake, Drīdzis, is 65.1 m (214 ft) deep. The longest river on Latvian territory is the Gauja, at 452 km (281 mi) in length. The longest river flowing through Latvian territory is the Daugava, which has a total length of 1,005 km (624 mi), of which 352 km (219 mi) is on Latvian territory. Latvia’s highest point is Gaiziņkalns, 311.6 m (1,022 ft). The length of Latvia’s Baltic coastline is 494 km (307 mi). An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country.^[98]

Climate

Latvia has a temperate climate that has been described in various sources as either humid continental (Köppen Dfb) or oceanic/maritime (Köppen Cfb).^{[99][100][101]}

Coastal regions, especially the western coast of the Courland Peninsula, possess a more maritime climate with cooler summers and milder winters, while eastern parts exhibit a more continental climate with warmer summers and harsher winters.^[99] Nevertheless, the temperature variations are little as the territory of Latvia is relatively small.^[102] Moreover, Latvia’s terrain is particularly flat (no more than 350 meters high), thus the Latvian climate is not differentiated by altitude.^[102]

Latvia has four pronounced seasons of near-equal length. Winter starts in mid-December and lasts until mid-March. Winters have average temperatures of −6 °C (21 °F) and are characterized by stable snow cover, bright sunshine, and short days. Severe spells of winter weather with cold winds, extreme temperatures of around −30 °C (−22 °F) and heavy snowfalls are common. Summer starts in June and lasts until August. Summers are usually warm and sunny, with cool evenings and nights. Summers have average temperatures of around 19 °C (66 °F), with extremes of 35 °C (95 °F). Spring and autumn bring fairly mild weather.^[103]

Weather records in Latvia^[104]

Weather record	Value	Location	Date
Highest temperature	37.8 °C (100 °F)	Ventspils	4 August 2014
Lowest temperature	−43.2 °C (−46 °F)	Daugavpils	8 February 1956
Last spring frost	–	Large parts of territory	24 June 1982
First autumn frost	–	Cenas parish	15 August 1975
Highest yearly precipitation	1,007 mm (39.6 in)	Priekuļi parish	1928
Lowest yearly precipitation	384 mm (15.1 in)	Ainaži	1939
Highest daily precipitation	160 mm (6.3 in)	Ventspils	9 July 1973
Highest monthly precipitation	330 mm (13.0 in)	Nīca parish	August 1972
Lowest monthly precipitation	0 mm (0 in)	Large parts of territory	May 1938 and May 1941
Thickest snow cover	126 cm (49.6 in)	Gaiziņkalns	March 1931
Month with the most days with blizzards	19 days	Liepāja	February 1956
The most days with fog in a year	143 days	Gaiziņkalns area	1946
Longest-lasting fog	93 hours	Alūksne	1958
Highest atmospheric pressure	31.5 inHg (1,066.7 mb)	Liepāja	January 1907
Lowest atmospheric pressure	27.5 inHg (931.3 mb)	Vidzeme Upland	13 February 1962
The most days with thunderstorms in a year	52 days	Vidzeme Upland	1954
Strongest wind	34 m/s, up to 48 m/s	Not specified	2 November 1969

2019 was the warmest year in the history of weather observation in Latvia with an average temperature +8.1 °C higher.^[105]

Environment

Most of the country is composed of fertile lowland plains and moderate hills. In a typical Latvian landscape, a mosaic of vast forests alternates with fields, farmsteads, and pastures. Arable land is spotted with birch groves and wooded clusters, which afford a habitat for numerous plants and animals. Latvia has hundreds of kilometres of undeveloped seashore—lined by pine forests, dunes, and continuous white sand beaches.^[98][106]

Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union, after Sweden, Finland, Estonia and Slovenia.^[107] Forests account for 3,497,000 ha (8,640,000 acres) or 56% of the total land area.^[96]

Latvia has over 12,500 rivers, which stretch for 38,000 km (24,000 mi). Major rivers include the Daugava River, Lielupe, Gauja, Venta, and Salaca, the largest spawning ground for salmon in the eastern Baltic states. There are 2,256 lakes that are bigger than 1 ha (2.5 acres), with a collective area of 1,000 km² (390 sq mi). Mires occupy 9.9% of Latvia’s territory. Of these, 42% are raised bogs; 49% are fens; and 9% are transitional mires. 70% percent of the mires are untouched by civilization, and they are a refuge for many rare species of plants and animals.^[106]

Agricultural areas account for 1,815,900 ha (4,487,000 acres) or 29% of the total land area.^[95] With the dismantling of collective farms, the area devoted to farming decreased dramatically – now farms are predominantly small. Approximately 200 farms, occupying 2,750 ha (6,800 acres), are engaged in ecologically pure farming (using no artificial fertilizers or pesticides).^[106]

Latvia’s national parks are Gauja National Park in Vidzeme (since 1973),^[108] Ķemeri National Park in Zemgale (1997), Slītere National Park in Kurzeme (1999), and Rāzna National Park in Latgale (2007).^[109]

Latvia has a long tradition of conservation. The first laws and regulations were promulgated in the 16th and 17th centuries.^[106] There are 706 specially state-level protected natural areas in Latvia: four national parks, one biosphere reserve, 42 nature parks, nine areas of protected landscapes, 260 nature reserves, four strict nature reserves, 355 nature monuments, seven protected marine areas and 24 microreserves.^[110] Nationally protected areas account for 12,790 km² (4,940 sq mi) or around 20% of Latvia’s total land area.^[97] Latvia’s Red Book (Endangered Species List of Latvia), which was established in 1977, contains 112 plant species and 119 animal species. Latvia has ratified the international Washington, Bern, and Ramsare conventions.^[106]

The 2012 Environmental Performance Index ranks Latvia second, after Switzerland, based on the environmental performance of the country’s policies.^[111]

Access to biocapacity in Latvia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Latvia had 8.5 global hectares^[112] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.^[113] In 2016 Latvia used 6.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person — their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Latvia contains. As a result, Latvia is running a biocapacity reserve.^[112]

Biodiversity

Approximately 30,000 species of flora and fauna have been registered in Latvia.^[115] Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves.^[116] Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species.^{[citation needed]}

Species that are endangered in other European countries but common in Latvia include: black stork (Ciconia nigra), corncrake (Crex crex), lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina), white-backed woodpecker (Picoides leucotos), Eurasian crane (Grus grus), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), European wolf (Canis lupus) and European lynx (Felis lynx).^[106]

Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests. 56 percent^[96] of Latvia’s territory is covered by forests, mostly Scots pine, birch, and Norway spruce.^{[citation needed]} It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 2.09/10, ranking it 159th globally out of 172 countries.^[117]

Several species of flora and fauna are considered national symbols. Oak (Quercus robur, Latvian: ozols), and linden (Tilia cordata, Latvian: liepa) are Latvia’s national trees and the daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare, Latvian: pīpene) its national flower. The white wagtail (Motacilla alba, Latvian: baltā cielava) is Latvia’s national bird. Its national insect is the two-spot ladybird (Adalia bipunctata, Latvian: divpunktu mārīte). Amber, fossilized tree resin, is one of Latvia’s most important cultural symbols. In ancient times, amber found along the Baltic Sea coast was sought by Vikings as well as traders from Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire. This led to the development of the Amber Road.^[118]

Several nature reserves protect unspoiled landscapes with a variety of large animals. At Pape Nature Reserve, where European bison, wild horses, and recreated aurochs have been reintroduced, there is now an almost complete Holocene megafauna also including moose, deer, and wolf.^[119]

Politics

The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the Saeima, is elected by direct popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the Saeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the Saeima. This system also existed before World War II.^[120] The most senior civil servants are the thirteen Secretaries of State.^[121]

Administrative divisions

Latvia is a unitary state, currently divided into 43 local government units consisting of 36 municipalities (Latvian: novadi) and 7 state cities (Latvian: valstspilsētas) with their own city council and administration: Daugavpils, Jelgava, Jūrmala, Liepāja, Rēzekne, Riga, and Ventspils. There are four historical and cultural regions in Latvia – Courland, Latgale, Vidzeme, Zemgale, which are recognised in Constitution of Latvia. Selonia, a part of Zemgale, is sometimes considered culturally distinct region, but it is not part of any formal division. The borders of historical and cultural regions usually are not explicitly defined and in several sources may vary. In formal divisions, Riga region, which includes the capital and parts of other regions that have a strong relationship with the capital, is also often included in regional divisions; e.g., there are five planning regions of Latvia (Latvian: plānošanas reģioni), which were created in 2009 to promote balanced development of all regions. Under this division Riga region includes large parts of what traditionally is considered Vidzeme, Courland, and Zemgale. Statistical regions of Latvia, established in accordance with the EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, duplicate this division, but divides Riga region into two parts with the capital alone being a separate region.^{[citation needed]}
The largest city in Latvia is Riga, the second largest city is Daugavpils and the third largest city is Liepaja.

Political culture

In 2010 parliamentary election ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats. Left-wing opposition Harmony Centre supported by Latvia’s Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats.^[122] In November 2013, Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse at a supermarket in Riga.^[123]

In 2014 parliamentary election was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by the Latvian Unity Party, the National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers. They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24.^[124] In December 2015, country’s first female Prime Minister, in office since January 2014, Laimdota Straujuma resigned.^[125] In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new Prime Minister Maris Kucinskis.^[126]

In 2018 parliamentary election pro-Russian Harmony was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats, the second and third were the new populist parties KPV LV and New Conservative Party. Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.^[127] In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new Prime Minister Krisjanis Karins of the centre-right New Unity. Karins’ coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.^[128]

Foreign relations

Latvia is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, OSCE, IMF, and WTO. It is also a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Investment Bank. It was a member of the League of Nations (1921–1946). Latvia is part of the Schengen Area and joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2014.

Latvia has established diplomatic relations with 158 countries. It has 44 diplomatic and consular missions and maintains 34 embassies and 9 permanent representations abroad. There are 37 foreign embassies and 11 international organisations in Latvia’s capital Riga. Latvia hosts one European Union institution, the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC).^[129]

Latvia’s foreign policy priorities include co-operation in the Baltic Sea region, European integration, active involvement in international organisations, contribution to European and transatlantic security and defence structures, participation in international civilian and military peacekeeping operations, and development co-operation, particularly the strengthening of stability and democracy in the EU’s Eastern Partnership countries.^{[130][131][132]}

Since the early 1990s, Latvia has been involved in active trilateral Baltic states co-operation with its neighbours Estonia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the Nordic countries. Latvia is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.^[133] Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB-8) is the joint co-operation of the governments of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, and Sweden.^[134] Nordic-Baltic Six (NB-6), comprising Nordic-Baltic countries that are European Union member states, is a framework for meetings on EU-related issues. Interparliamentary co-operation between the Baltic Assembly and Nordic Council was signed in 1992 and since 2006 annual meetings are held as well as regular meetings on other levels.^[134] Joint Nordic-Baltic co-operation initiatives include the education programme NordPlus^[135] and mobility programmes for public administration,^[136] business and industry^[137] and culture.^[138] The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Riga.^[139]

Latvia participates in the Northern Dimension and Baltic Sea Region Programme, European Union initiatives to foster cross-border co-operation in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe. The secretariat of the Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC) will be located in Riga.^[140] In 2013 Riga hosted the annual Northern Future Forum, a two-day informal meeting of the prime ministers of the Nordic-Baltic countries and the UK.^[141] The Enhanced Partnership in Northern Europe or e-Pine is the U.S. Department of State diplomatic framework for co-operation with the Nordic-Baltic countries.^[142]

Latvia hosted the 2006 NATO Summit and since then the annual Riga Conference has become a leading foreign and security policy forum in Northern Europe.^[143] Latvia held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the first half of 2015.^[144]

On 29 April 2022, in an official ceremony in Vaduz, the Ambassador of the Republic of Latvia to the Principality of Liechtenstein, Guna Japiņa, presented her credentials to His Serene Highness Hereditary Prince Alois of Liechtenstein.^[145]

Military

The National Armed Forces (Latvian: Nacionālie bruņotie spēki (NAF)) of Latvia consists of the Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard, Special Tasks Unit, Military Police, NAF staff Battalion, Training and Doctrine Command, and Logistics Command. Latvia’s defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilisation base and a small group of career professionals. From 1 January 2007, Latvia switched to a professional fully contract-based army.^[146]

Latvia participates in international peacekeeping and security operations. Latvian armed forces have contributed to NATO and EU military operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2009), Albania (1999), Kosovo (2000–2009), Macedonia (2003), Iraq (2005–2006), Afghanistan (since 2003), Somalia (since 2011) and Mali (since 2013).^{[147][148][149]} Latvia also took part in the US-led Multi-National Force operation in Iraq (2003–2008)^[150] and OSCE missions in Georgia, Kosovo and Macedonia.^[151] Latvian armed forces contributed to a UK-led Battlegroup in 2013 and the Nordic Battlegroup in 2015 under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union.^[152] Latvia acts as the lead nation in the coordination of the Northern Distribution Network for transportation of non-lethal ISAF cargo by air and rail to Afghanistan.^{[153][154][155]} It is part of the Nordic Transition Support Unit (NTSU), which renders joint force contributions in support of Afghan security structures ahead of the withdrawal of Nordic and Baltic ISAF forces in 2014.^[156] Since 1996 more than 3600 military personnel have participated in international operations,^[148] of whom 7 soldiers perished.^[157] Per capita, Latvia is one of the largest contributors to international military operations.^[158]

Latvian civilian experts have contributed to EU civilian missions: border assistance mission to Moldova and Ukraine (2005–2009), rule of law missions in Iraq (2006 and 2007) and Kosovo (since 2008), police mission in Afghanistan (since 2007) and monitoring mission in Georgia (since 2008).^[147]

Since March 2004, when the Baltic states joined NATO, fighter jets of NATO members have been deployed on a rotational basis for the Baltic Air Policing mission at Šiauliai Airport in Lithuania to guard the Baltic airspace. Latvia participates in several NATO Centres of Excellence: Civil-Military Co-operation in the Netherlands, Cooperative Cyber Defence in Estonia and Energy Security in Lithuania. It plans to establish the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence in Riga.^[159]

Latvia co-operates with Estonia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:

• Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) – infantry battalion for participation in international peace support operations, headquartered near Riga, Latvia;
• Baltic Naval Squadron (BALTRON) – naval force with mine countermeasures capabilities, headquartered near Tallinn, Estonia;
• Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) – air surveillance information system, headquartered near Kaunas, Lithuania;
• Joint military educational institutions: Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia, Baltic Diving Training Centre in Liepāja, Latvia and Baltic Naval Communications Training Centre in Tallinn, Estonia.^[160]

Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas (BALTTRAIN) and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.^[161] In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to join Nordic Defence Cooperation, the defence framework of the Nordic countries.^[162] In November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.^[163]

On 21 April 2022, Latvian Saeima passed amendments developed by the Ministry of Defence for the legislative draft Amendments to the Law on Financing of National Defence, which provide for gradual increase in the defence budget to 2.5% of the country’s GDP over the course of the next three year.^[164]

Human rights

According to the reports by Freedom House and the US Department of State, human rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government:^[165][166] Latvia is ranked above-average among the world’s sovereign states in democracy,^[167] press freedom,^[168] privacy^[169] and human development.^[170]

More than 56% of leading positions are held by women in Latvia, which ranks first in Europe; Latvia ranks first in the world in women’s rights sharing the position with five other European countries according to World Bank.^[171]

The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which was guaranteed basic rights under the constitution and international human rights laws ratified by the Latvian government.^[165][172]

Approximately 206,000 non-citizens^[173] – including stateless persons – have limited access to some political rights – only citizens are allowed to participate in parliamentary or municipal elections, although there are no limitations in regards to joining political parties or other political organizations.^[174][175] In 2011, the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities «urged Latvia to allow non-citizens to vote in municipal elections.»^[176] Additionally, there have been reports of police abuse of detainees and arrestees, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, incidents of violence against ethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.^{[165][177][178]}

Economy

Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004). On 1 January 2014, the euro became the country’s currency, superseding the Lats. According to statistics in late 2013, 45% of the population supported the introduction of the euro, while 52% opposed it.^[179] Following the introduction of the Euro, Eurobarometer surveys in January 2014 showed support for the euro to be around 53%, close to the European average.^[180]

Since the year 2000, Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.^[181] However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis, shortage of credit and huge money resources used for the bailout of Parex Bank.^[182] The Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.^[183][184]

The economic crisis of 2009 proved earlier assumptions that the fast-growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which rose 150% from 2004 to 2006, was a significant contributor to the economic bubble.^[185]

Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been privatised, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. The private sector accounted for 70% of the country’s GDP in 2006.
^[186]

Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997. Representing 10.2% of Latvia’s total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States of America exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.^[187][188]

In 2010 Latvia launched a Residence by Investment program (Golden Visa) in order to attract foreign investors and make local economy benefit from it. This program allows investors to get a Latvian residence permit by investing at least €250,000 in property or in an enterprise with at least 50 employees and an annual turnover of at least €10M.

Economic contraction and recovery (2008–12)

The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate values. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.^[189]

Latvia’s unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.^[190] In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain, which had 19.7%.^[191]

Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column on 15 December 2008:

The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina^[192]

However, by 2010, commentators^[193][194] noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy. Rating agency Standard & Poor’s raised its outlook on Latvia’s debt from negative to stable.^[193] Latvia’s current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.^[193] Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst at Moody’s Investors Service argued that:

The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country’s ‘internal devaluation’ is working.^[195]

The IMF concluded the First Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with the Republic of Latvia in July 2012 announcing that Latvia’s economy has been recovering strongly since 2010, following the deep downturn in 2008–09. Real GDP growth of 5.5 percent in 2011 was underpinned by export growth and a recovery in domestic demand. The growth momentum has continued into 2012 and 2013 despite deteriorating external conditions, and the economy is expected to expand by 4.1 percent in 2014. The unemployment rate has receded from its peak of more than 20 percent in 2010 to around 9.3 percent in 2014.^[196]

Infrastructure

The transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan as well as other Asian countries and the West is large.^[197]

The four biggest ports of Latvia are located in Riga, Ventspils, Liepāja and Skulte. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.^[197] Free port of Ventspils is one of the busiest ports in the Baltic states. Apart from road and railway connections, Ventspils is also linked to oil extraction fields and transportation routes of Russian Federation via system of two pipelines from Polotsk, Belarus.^{[citation needed]}

Riga International Airport is the busiest airport in the Baltic states with 7.8 million passengers in 2019. It has direct flight to over 80 destinations in 30 countries. The only other airport handling regular commercial flights is Liepāja International Airport.
airBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier with hubs in all three Baltic States, but main base in Riga, Latvia.^[198]

Latvian Railway’s main network consists of 1,860 km of which 1,826 km is 1,520 mm Russian gauge railway of which 251 km are electrified, making it the longest railway network in the Baltic States. Latvia’s railway network is currently incompatible with European standard gauge lines.^[199] However, Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki-Tallinn-Riga-Kaunas-Warsaw is under construction and is set to be completed in 2026.^[200]

National road network in Latvia totals 1675 km of main roads, 5473 km of regional roads and 13 064 km of local roads. Municipal roads in Latvia totals 30 439 km of roads and 8039 km of streets.^[201] The best known roads are A1 (European route E67), connecting Warsaw and Tallinn, as well as European route E22, connecting Ventspils and Terehova. In 2017 there were a total of 803,546 licensed vehicles in Latvia.^[202]

Latvia has three large hydroelectric power stations in Pļaviņu HES (908 MW), Rīgas HES (402 MW) and Ķeguma HES-2 (248 MW).^[203] In recent years a couple of dozen of wind farms as well as biogas or biomass power stations of different scale have been built in Latvia.^[204] In 2022, the Latvian Prime Minister announced about the planned investments of 1 billion euros in the new wind farms and the completed project will expectedly provide additional 800 MW of capacity.^[205]

Latvia operates Inčukalns underground gas storage facility, one of the largest underground gas storage facilities in Europe and the only one in the Baltic states. Unique geological conditions at Inčukalns and other locations in Latvia are particularly suitable for underground gas storage.^[206]

Demographics

The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated to be 1.61 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2012, 45.0% of births were to unmarried women.^[207] The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 73.19 years (68.13 years male, 78.53 years female).^[189] As of 2015, Latvia is estimated to have the lowest male-to-female ratio in the world, at 0.85 males per female.^[208] In 2017, there were 1,054,433 females and 895,683 males living in Latvian territory. Every year, more boys are born than girls. Until the age of 39, there are more males than females. From the age of 70, there are 2.3 times as many females as males.

Ethnic groups

As of March 2011, Latvians formed about 62.1% of the population, while 26.9% were Russians, Belarusians 3.3%, Ukrainians 2.2%, Poles 2.2%, Lithuanians 1.2%, Jews 0.3%, Romani people 0.3%, Germans 0.1%, Estonians 0.1% and others 1.3%. 250 people identify as Livonians (Baltic Finnic people native to Latvia).^[209] There were 290,660 «non-citizens» living in Latvia or 14.1% of Latvian residents, mainly Russian settlers who arrived after the occupation of 1940 and their descendants.^[210]

In some cities, including Daugavpils and Rēzekne, ethnic Latvians constitute a minority of the total population. Despite a steadily increasing proportion of ethnic Latvians for more than a decade, ethnic Latvians also still make up slightly less than a half of the population of the capital city of Latvia – Riga.^{[citation needed]}

The share of ethnic Latvians declined from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.^[211] In the context of a decreasing overall population, there were fewer Latvians in 2011 than in 1989, but their share of the population was larger – 1,285,136 (62.1% of the population).^[212]

Language

The sole official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language sub-group of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian – as a dialect of Latvian is also protected by Latvian law but as a historical variation of the Latvian language. Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is still the most widely used minority language by far (in 2011, 34% spoke it at home, including people who were not ethnically Russian).^[213]
While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, schools also include English, German, French and Russian in their curricula. English is also widely accepted in Latvia in business and tourism. As of 2014 there were 109 schools for minorities that use Russian as the language of instruction (27% of all students) for 40% of subjects (the remaining 60% of subjects are taught in Latvian).

On 18 February 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.^[214] According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.^[215]

From 2019, instruction in the Russian language was gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, as well as general instruction in Latvian public high schools,^[216][217] except for subjects related to culture and history of the Russian minority, such as Russian language and literature classes.^[218]

Religion

The largest religion in Latvia is Christianity (79%).^[189][219] The largest groups as of 2011 were:

• Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 708,773^[219]
• Roman Catholic – 500,000^[219]
• Russian Orthodox – 370,000^[219]

In the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 38% of Latvian citizens responded that «they believe there is a God», while 48% answered that «they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force» and 11% stated that «they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force».

Lutheranism was more prominent before the Soviet occupation, when it was adhered to by about 60% of the population, a reflection of the country’s strong historical links with the Nordic countries, and to the influence of the Hansa in particular and Germany in general. Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a slightly greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adversely. An internal document of 18 March 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.^[220]

The country’s Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church. In 2011, there were 416 religious Jews in Latvia and 319 Muslims in Latvia.^[219] As of 2004, there were more than 600 Latvian neopagans, Dievturi (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.^[221][222] About 21% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion.^[219]

Education and science

The University of Latvia and Riga Technical University are two major universities in the country, both established on the basis of Riga Polytechnical Institute, which was evacuated to Moscow in 1914 when the World War I was started, and located in Riga.^[223] Other important universities, which were established on the base of State University of Latvia, include the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies (established in 1939 on the basis of the Faculty of Agriculture) and Riga Stradiņš University (established in 1950 on the basis of the Faculty of Medicine). Both nowadays cover a variety of different fields. The University of Daugavpils is another significant centre of education.

Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrolment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% decline.^[224]

Latvian policy in science and technology has set out the long-term goal of transitioning from labor-consuming economy to knowledge-based economy.^[225] By 2020 the government aims to spend 1.5% of GDP on research and development, with half of the investments coming from the private sector. Latvia plans to base the development of its scientific potential on existing scientific traditions, particularly in organic chemistry, medical chemistry, genetic engineering, physics, materials science and information technologies.^[226] The greatest number of patents, both nationwide and abroad, are in medical chemistry.^[227] Latvia was ranked 38th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 34th in 2019.^{[228][229][230][231]}

Health

The Latvian healthcare system is a universal programme, largely funded through government taxation.^[232] It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.^[233] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007 and 121 in 2006.^{[234][235][236]}

Culture

Traditional Latvian folklore, especially the dance of the folk songs, dates back well over a thousand years. More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identified.^[237]

Between the 13th and 19th centuries, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class.^{[citation needed]} They developed distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the United States, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life.^{[citation needed]} Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions. For example, one of the most popular celebrations is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice—which Latvians celebrate on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.^{[citation needed]}

In the 19th century, Latvian nationalist movements emerged. They promoted Latvian culture and encouraged Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded by Latvians as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.^{[citation needed]} With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audience.^[238]

The Latvian Song and Dance Festival is an important event in Latvian culture and social life. It has been held since 1873, normally every five years. Approximately 30,000 performers altogether participate in the event.^[239] Folk songs and classical choir songs are sung, with emphasis on a cappella singing, though modern popular songs have recently been incorporated into the repertoire as well.^[240]

After incorporation into the Soviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre, scenography, choir music, and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.^[241]

During July 2014, Riga hosted the eighth World Choir Games as it played host to over 27,000 choristers representing over 450 choirs and over 70 countries. The festival is the biggest of its kind in the world and is held every two years in a different host city.^[242]

Starting in 2019 Latvia hosts the inaugural Riga Jurmala Music Festival, a new festival in which world-famous orchestras and conductors perform across four weekends during the summer. The festival takes place at the Latvian National Opera, the Great Guild, and the Great and Small Halls of the Dzintari Concert Hall. This year features the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra and the Russian National Orchestra.^[243]

Cuisine

Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishes. Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia’s location on the Baltic Sea. Latvian cuisine has been influenced by neighbouring countries. Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs, and pork. Latvian food is generally quite fatty and uses few spices.^[244]

Grey peas with speck are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians. Sorrel soup (skābeņu zupa) is also consumed by Latvians.^[245] Rye bread is considered the national staple.^[246]

Sport

Ice hockey is usually considered the most popular sport in Latvia. Latvia has had many famous hockey stars like Helmuts Balderis, Artūrs Irbe, Kārlis Skrastiņš and Sandis Ozoliņš and more recently Zemgus Girgensons, whom the Latvian people have strongly supported in international and NHL play, expressed through the dedication of using the NHL’s All Star Voting to bring Zemgus to number one in voting.^[247] Dinamo Riga is the country’s strongest hockey club, playing in the Latvian Hockey Higher League. The national tournament is the Latvian Hockey Higher League, held since 1931. The 2006 IIHF World Championship was held in Riga.

The second most popular sport is basketball. Latvia has a long basketball tradition, as the Latvian national basketball team won the first ever EuroBasket in 1935 and silver medals in 1939, after losing the final to Lithuania by one point. Latvia has had many European basketball stars like Jānis Krūmiņš, Maigonis Valdmanis, Valdis Muižnieks, Valdis Valters, Igors Miglinieks, as well as the first Latvian NBA player Gundars Vētra. Andris Biedriņš is one of the most well-known Latvian basketball players, who played in the NBA for the Golden State Warriors and the Utah Jazz. Current NBA players include Kristaps Porziņģis, who plays for the Washington Wizards, Dāvis Bertāns, who plays for the Dallas Mavericks, and Rodions Kurucs, who last played for the Milwaukee Bucks. Former Latvian basketball club Rīgas ASK won the Euroleague tournament three times in a row before becoming defunct. Currently, VEF Rīga, which competes in EuroCup, is the strongest professional basketball club in Latvia. BK Ventspils, which participates in EuroChallenge, is the second strongest basketball club in Latvia, previously winning LBL eight times and BBL in 2013.^{[citation needed]} Latvia was one of the EuroBasket 2015 hosts.

Other popular sports include football, floorball, tennis, volleyball, cycling, bobsleigh and skeleton. The Latvian national football team’s only major FIFA tournament participation has been the 2004 UEFA European Championship.^[248]

Latvia has participated successfully in both Winter and Summer Olympics. The most successful Olympic athlete in the history of independent Latvia has been Māris Štrombergs, who became a two-time Olympic champion in 2008 and 2012 at Men’s BMX.^[249]

In Boxing, Mairis Briedis is the first and only Latvian to date, to win a boxing world title, having held the WBC cruiserweight title from 2017 to 2018, the WBO cruiserweight title in 2019, and the IBF / The Ring magazine cruiserweight titles in 2020.

In 2017, Latvian tennis player Jeļena Ostapenko won the 2017 French Open Women’s singles title, being the first unseeded player to do so in the open era.

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Government

• President of Latvia
• Parliament of Latvia
• Government of Latvia
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia
• Statistical Office of Latvia
• Latvian Institute
• Bank of Latvia

General information

• Latvia Online
• European Union country profile
• Britannica Online Encyclopedia
• BBC News country profile
• Latvia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Latvia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Latvia at Curlie
• Key Development Forecasts for Latvia from International Futures

Culture

• Latvian Cultural Canon
• Latvian Culture Map
• Latvian Culture Portal
• Livonian Culture Portal
• State Agency of Cultural Heritage
• National Library of Latvia Archived 1 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Latvian Heritage
• Latvian Music Information Centre

Travel

• Official Latvian Tourism Portal

Maps

«Lettonia» redirects here. For the Latvian student corporation, see Lettonia (corporation).

Coordinates: 57°N 25°E / 57°N 25°E

Republic of Latvia Latvijas Republika (Latvian) Latvejas Republika (Latgalian) Lețmō Vabāmō (Livonian)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Dievs, svētī Latviju! (Latvian) («God Bless Latvia!»)
Location of Latvia (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend]
Capital and largest city	Riga 56°57′N 24°6′E / 56.950°N 24.100°E
Official languages	Latviana
Recognized languages	Livonian Latgalian
Ethnic groups (2022[1])	63.0% Latvians 24.2% Russians 3.1% Belarusians 2.2% Ukrainians 1.9% Poles 1.1% Lithuanians 0.3% Roma 0.2% Jews 4% Others / Unspecified
Religion (2018)[2]	64% Christianity • 36% Lutheranism • 17% Catholicism • 9% Orthodoxy • 2% Other Christian 35% No religion 1% Others
Demonym(s)	Latvian
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic
• President	Egils Levits
• Prime Minister	Krišjānis Kariņš
• Speaker of the Saeima	Edvards Smiltēns
Legislature	Saeima
Independence  from Germany and the Soviet Union
• Declared[3]	18 November 1918
• Recognised	26 January 1921
• Constitution adopted	7 November 1922
• Restored after Soviet occupation[4]	21 August 1991
• Joined the EU	1 May 2004
Area
• Total	64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) (122nd)
• Water (%)	2.09 (2015)[5]
Population
• 2022 estimate	1,842,226[6] (153rd)
• Density	29.6/km2 (76.7/sq mi) (147th)
GDP (PPP)	2022 estimate
• Total	$72.03billion[7] (105th)
• Per capita	$38,124[7] (48th)
GDP (nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	$40.588 billion[7] (100th)
• Per capita	$21,482[7] (44th)
Gini (2021)	35.7[8] medium
HDI (2021)	0.863[9] very high · 39th
Currency	Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Driving side	right
Calling code	+371
ISO 3166 code	LV
Internet TLD	.lvc
Latvian is the sole official language.[10][11] Livonian is considered an indigenous language and has special legal status.[12] Latgalian written language and Latvian Sign Language also have special legal status.[13] Latvia is de jure continuous with its declaration of 18 November 1918. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

Latvia ( or ; Latvian: Latvija [ˈlatvija]; Latgalian: Latveja; Livonian: Lețmō), officially the Republic of Latvia^[14] (Latvian: Latvijas Republika, Latgalian: Latvejas Republika, Livonian: Lețmō Vabāmō), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the Baltic states; and is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Belarus to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Latvia covers an area of 64,589 km² (24,938 sq mi), with a population of 1.9 million. The country has a temperate seasonal climate.^[15] Its capital and largest city is Riga. Latvians belong to the ethno-linguistic group of the Balts and speak Latvian, one of the only two^[a] surviving Baltic languages. Russians are the most prominent minority in the country, at almost a quarter of the population.

After centuries of Teutonic, Swedish, Polish-Lithuanian and Russian rule, which was mainly executed by the local Baltic German aristocracy, the independent Republic of Latvia was established on 18 November 1918 when it broke away from the German Empire and declared independence in the aftermath of World War I.^[3] However, by the 1930s the country became increasingly autocratic after the coup in 1934 establishing an authoritarian regime under Kārlis Ulmanis.^[16] The country’s de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II, beginning with Latvia’s forcible incorporation into the Soviet Union, followed by the invasion and occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941, and the re-occupation by the Soviets in 1944 to form the Latvian SSR for the next 45 years. As a result of extensive immigration during the Soviet occupation, ethnic Russians became the most prominent minority in the country, now constituting nearly a quarter of the population. The peaceful Singing Revolution started in 1987, and ended with the restoration of de facto independence on 21 August 1991.^[17] Since then, Latvia has been a democratic unitary parliamentary republic.

Latvia is a developed country, with a high-income advanced economy; ranking very high 39th in the Human Development Index. It performs favorably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, living standards, and peacefulness. Latvia is a member of the European Union, Eurozone, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the International Monetary Fund, the Nordic-Baltic Eight, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the World Trade Organization.

Etymology

The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes (along with Curonians, Selonians and Semigallians), which formed the ethnic core of modern Latvians together with the Finnic Livonians.^[18] Henry of Latvia coined the latinisations of the country’s name, «Lettigallia» and «Lethia», both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the country’s name in Romance languages from «Letonia» and in several Germanic languages from «Lettland».^[19]

History

Around 3000 BC, the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea.^[20] The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals.^[21] By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: kurši, latgaļi, sēļi and zemgaļi), as well as the Finnic tribe of Livonians (lībieši) speaking a Finnic language.^{[citation needed]}

In the 12th century in the territory of Latvia, there were lands with their rulers: Vanema, Ventava, Bandava, Piemare, Duvzare, Sēlija, Koknese, Jersika, Tālava and Adzele.^[22]

Medieval period

Although the local people had contact with the outside world for centuries, they became more fully integrated into the European socio-political system in the 12th century.^[23] The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.^[24] The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as the Church had hoped.^[24]

German crusaders were sent, or more likely decided to go on their own accord as they were known to do. Saint Meinhard of Segeberg arrived in Ikšķile, in 1184, traveling with merchants to Livonia, on a Catholic mission to convert the population from their original pagan beliefs. Pope Celestine III had called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193. When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians by force of arms.^[25]

At the beginning of the 13th century, Germans ruled large parts of what is currently Latvia.^[24] The influx of German crusaders in the present-day Latvian territory especially increased in the second half of the 13th century following the decline and fall of the Crusader States in the Middle East.^[26] Together with southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana (Medieval Latin for «Land of Mary») or Livonia.^[27] In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera, became part of the Hanseatic League.^[24] Riga became an important point of east–west trading^[24] and formed close cultural links with Western Europe.^[28] The first German settlers were knights from northern Germany and citizens of northern German towns who brought their Low German language to the region, which shaped many loanwords in the Latvian language.^[29]

Reformation period and Polish and Swedish rule

After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Northern Latvia & Southern Estonia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule.^[24] The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Duchy of Livonia (Ducatus Livoniae Ultradunensis). Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia, formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia.^[30] Though the duchy was a vassal state to Lithuanian Grand Duchy and later of Polish and Lithuanian commonwealth, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 16th century. Latgalia, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.^[31]

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia struggled for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish–Swedish War, northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Riga became the capital of Swedish Livonia and the largest city in the entire Swedish Empire.^[32] Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629.^{[33][citation needed]} In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished.^[34][35]

Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion.^[36] The ancient tribes of the Couronians, Semigallians, Selonians, Livs, and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people, speaking one Latvian language.^[37][38] Throughout all the centuries, however, an actual Latvian state had not been established, so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Latvia, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.^[39]

Livonia & Courland in the Russian Empire (1795–1917)

During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), up to 40 percent of Latvians died from famine and plague.^[40] Half the residents of Riga were killed by plague in 1710–1711.^[41] The capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad, ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate).^{[citation needed]} The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was incorporated into Russia. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a vassal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was annexed by Russia in 1795 in the Third Partition of Poland, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian Empire. All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, German as the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag.^{[citation needed]}

The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819.^{[citation needed][42]} In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility,^{[citation needed]} as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates «of their own free will».^{[citation needed]}

During these two centuries Latvia experienced economic and construction boom – ports were expanded (Riga became the largest port in the Russian Empire), railways built; new factories, banks, and a university were established; many residential, public (theatres and museums), and school buildings were erected; new parks formed; and so on. Riga’s boulevards and some streets outside the Old Town date from this period.^{[citation needed]}

Numeracy was also higher in the Livonian and Courlandian parts of the Russian Empire, which may have been influenced by the Protestant religion of the inhabitants.^[43]

National awakening

During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically.^[44] A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained, quite a lot Latvians left for the cities and sought for education, industrial jobs.^[44] There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie.^[44] The Young Latvian (Latvian: Jaunlatvieši) movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order.^[45][46] The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National Awakening.^[45] Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s.^{[citation needed]} The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s.^[47] Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces.^[48]

Declaration of independence and interwar period

World War I devastated the territory of what became the state of Latvia, and other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands for self-determination were initially confined to autonomy, until a power vacuum was created by the Russian Revolution in 1917, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany in March 1918, then the Allied armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918. On 18 November 1918, in Riga, the People’s Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country and Kārlis Ulmanis was entrusted to set up a government and he took the position of Prime Minister.^[49]

The General representative of Germany August Winnig formally handed over political power to the Latvian Provisional Government on 26 November. On 18 November, the Latvian People’s Council entrusted him to set up the government. He took the office of Minister of Agriculture from 18 November to 19 December. He took a position of Prime Minister from 19 November 1918 to 13 July 1919.

The war of independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe. By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments: the Provisional government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis, supported by the Tautas padome and the Inter-Allied Commission of Control; the Latvian Soviet government led by Pēteris Stučka, supported by the Red Army; and the Provisional government headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit Iron Division.^{[citation needed]}

Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919,^[50] and a massive attack by a predominantly German force—the West Russian Volunteer Army—under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective the Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish–Soviet War).^{[citation needed]}

A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on 1 May 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme, in February 1922.^[51] The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934 but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia’s industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.^[52]

By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of the Great Depression. Latvia showed signs of economic recovery, and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period.^{[citation needed]} On 15 May 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.^[53] After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of «Latvianising» the economy.^[54]

Latvia in World War II

Early in the morning of 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.^[55] The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany’s defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet «spheres of influence».^[56] In the north, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.^[56] A week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; on 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well.^[57]: 32

After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis’s government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich programme.^[58] In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in Latvia.^[58] Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement scheme was agreed.^[59] The racially approved being resettled mainly in Poland, being given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous assets.^[57]: 46

On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a «mutual assistance» pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.^[60]
State administrators were murdered and replaced by Soviet cadres.^[61] Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions. The resulting people’s assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which the Soviet Union granted.^[61] Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins.^[62] The Soviet Union incorporated Latvia on 5 August 1940, as the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic.

The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to Operation Barbarossa, in less than a year, at least 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.^[63] Most were deported to Siberia where deaths were estimated at 40 percent.^[57]: 48

On 22 June 1941, German troops attacked Soviet forces in Operation Barbarossa.^[64] There were some spontaneous uprisings by Latvians against the Red Army which helped the Germans. By 29 June Riga was reached and with Soviet troops killed, captured or retreating, Latvia was left under the control of German forces by early July.^{[65][57]: 78–96} The occupation was followed immediately by SS Einsatzgruppen troops, who were to act in accordance with the Nazi Generalplan Ost that required the population of Latvia to be cut by 50 percent.^{[57]: 64 [57]: 56}

Under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland.^[66] Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust and other atrocities.^[53] 30,000 Jews were shot in Latvia in the autumn of 1941.^[57]: 127 Another 30,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto were killed in the Rumbula Forest in November and December 1941, to reduce overpopulation in the ghetto and make room for more Jews being brought in from Germany and the West.^[57]: 128 There was a pause in fighting, apart from partisan activity, until after the siege of Leningrad ended in January 1944, and the Soviet troops advanced, entering Latvia in July and eventually capturing Riga on 13 October 1944.^[57]: 271

More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation.^[53] Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, mainly on the German side, with 140,000 men in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS,^[67] The 308th Latvian Rifle Division was formed by the Red Army in 1944. On occasions, especially in 1944, opposing Latvian troops faced each other in battle.^[57]: 299

In the 23rd block of the Vorverker cemetery, a monument was erected after the Second World War for the people of Latvia who had died in Lübeck from 1945 to 1950.

Soviet era (1940–1941, 1944–1991)

In 1944, when Soviet military advances reached Latvia, heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended in another German defeat. In the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation’s «live resources». In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender, it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stay, and Latvian national partisans, soon joined by some who had collaborated with the Germans, began to fight against the new occupier.^[68]

Anywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.^[69] Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving Latvia, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war,^[70] returned by the West.^[71]
The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivised
and Sovietised.^[53]

On 25 March 1949, 43,000 rural residents («kulaks») and Latvian nationalists were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on 29 January 1949.^[72] This operation had the desired effect of reducing the anti-Soviet partisan activity.^[57]: 326 Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag) in the post-war years from 1945 to 1952.^[73]

In the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivization.^[74] An extensive program to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.^[75] An influx of new colonists, including laborers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started. By 1959 about 400,000 Russian settlers arrived and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.^[76]

Since Latvia had maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union’s most advanced manufacturing in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine—and some food and oil processing plants.^[77] Latvia manufactured trains, ships, minibuses, mopeds, telephones, radios and hi-fi systems, electrical and diesel engines, textiles, furniture, clothing, bags and luggage, shoes, musical instruments, home appliances, watches, tools and equipment, aviation and agricultural equipment and long list of other goods. Latvia had its own film industry and musical records factory (LPs). However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories.^{[citation needed]} To maintain and expand industrial production, skilled workers were migrating from all over the Soviet Union, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.^[78] The population of Latvia reached its peak in 1990 at just under 2.7 million people.

In late 2018 the National Archives of Latvia released a full alphabetical index of some 10,000 people recruited as agents or informants by the Soviet KGB. ‘The publication, which followed two decades of public debate and the passage of a special law, revealed the names, code names, birthplaces and other data on active and former KGB agents as of 1991, the year Latvia regained its independence from the Soviet Union.’^[79]

Restoration of independence in 1991

In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union that were called glasnost and perestroika. In the summer of 1987, the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument—a symbol of independence. In the summer of 1988, a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia, was opposed by the Interfront. The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988, the old pre-war Flag of Latvia flew again, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990.^[80][81]

In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the Occupation of the Baltic states, in which it declared the occupation «not in accordance with law», and not the «will of the Soviet people». Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic elections. On 4 May 1990, the Supreme Council adopted the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, and the Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia.^[82]

However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as a Soviet republic in 1990 and 1991. In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions. During the transitional period, Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia.^[82]

The Popular Front of Latvia advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenship, however, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted. Instead, citizenship was granted to persons who had been citizens of Latvia on the day of loss of independence in 1940 as well as their descendants. As a consequence, the majority of ethnic non-Latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship since neither they nor their parents had ever been citizens of Latvia, becoming non-citizens or citizens of other former Soviet republics. By 2011, more than half of non-citizens had taken naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship, but in 2015 there were still 290,660 non-citizens in Latvia, which represented 14.1% of the population. They have no citizenship of any country, and cannot participate in the parliamentary elections.^[83] Children born to non-nationals after the re-establishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.

The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on 21 August 1991, in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attempt.^[4] Latvia resumed diplomatic relations with Western states, including Sweden.^[84] The Saeima, Latvia’s parliament, was again elected in 1993. Russia ended its military presence by completing its troop withdrawal in 1994 and shutting down the Skrunda-1 radar station in 1998. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004. The NATO Summit 2006 was held in Riga.^[85] Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was President of Latvia from 1999 until 2007. She was the first female head of state in the former Soviet block state and was active in Latvia joining both NATO and the European Union in 2004.^[86]

Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian; less than 1% of non-citizens are Latvian, while 71% are Russian.^[87] The government denationalized private property confiscated by the Soviets, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatized most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia is one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union. In 2014, Riga was the European Capital of Culture,^[88] Latvia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency euro as the currency of the country^[89] and Latvian Valdis Dombrovskis was named vice-president of the European Commission.^[90] In 2015 Latvia held the presidency of Council of the European Union.^[91] Big European events have been celebrated in Riga such as the Eurovision Song Contest 2003^[92] and the European Film Awards 2014.^[93] On 1 July 2016, Latvia became a member of the OECD.^[94]

Geography

Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea and northwestern part of the East European Craton (EEC), between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°). Latvia has a total area of 64,559 km² (24,926 sq mi) of which 62,157 km² (23,999 sq mi) land, 18,159 km² (7,011 sq mi) agricultural land,^[95] 34,964 km² (13,500 sq mi) forest land^[96] and 2,402 km² (927 sq mi) inland water.^[97]

The total length of Latvia’s boundary is 1,866 km (1,159 mi). The total length of its land boundary is 1,368 km (850 mi), of which 343 km (213 mi) is shared with Estonia to the north, 276 km (171 mi) with the Russian Federation to the east, 161 km (100 mi) with Belarus to the southeast and 588 km (365 mi) with Lithuania to the south. The total length of its maritime boundary is 498 km (309 mi), which is shared with Estonia, Sweden and Lithuania. Extension from north to south is 210 km (130 mi) and from west to east 450 km (280 mi).^[97]

Most of Latvia’s territory is less than 100 m (330 ft) above sea level. Its largest lake, Lubāns, has an area of 80.7 km² (31.2 sq mi), its deepest lake, Drīdzis, is 65.1 m (214 ft) deep. The longest river on Latvian territory is the Gauja, at 452 km (281 mi) in length. The longest river flowing through Latvian territory is the Daugava, which has a total length of 1,005 km (624 mi), of which 352 km (219 mi) is on Latvian territory. Latvia’s highest point is Gaiziņkalns, 311.6 m (1,022 ft). The length of Latvia’s Baltic coastline is 494 km (307 mi). An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country.^[98]

Climate

Latvia has a temperate climate that has been described in various sources as either humid continental (Köppen Dfb) or oceanic/maritime (Köppen Cfb).^{[99][100][101]}

Coastal regions, especially the western coast of the Courland Peninsula, possess a more maritime climate with cooler summers and milder winters, while eastern parts exhibit a more continental climate with warmer summers and harsher winters.^[99] Nevertheless, the temperature variations are little as the territory of Latvia is relatively small.^[102] Moreover, Latvia’s terrain is particularly flat (no more than 350 meters high), thus the Latvian climate is not differentiated by altitude.^[102]

Latvia has four pronounced seasons of near-equal length. Winter starts in mid-December and lasts until mid-March. Winters have average temperatures of −6 °C (21 °F) and are characterized by stable snow cover, bright sunshine, and short days. Severe spells of winter weather with cold winds, extreme temperatures of around −30 °C (−22 °F) and heavy snowfalls are common. Summer starts in June and lasts until August. Summers are usually warm and sunny, with cool evenings and nights. Summers have average temperatures of around 19 °C (66 °F), with extremes of 35 °C (95 °F). Spring and autumn bring fairly mild weather.^[103]

Weather records in Latvia^[104]

Weather record	Value	Location	Date
Highest temperature	37.8 °C (100 °F)	Ventspils	4 August 2014
Lowest temperature	−43.2 °C (−46 °F)	Daugavpils	8 February 1956
Last spring frost	–	Large parts of territory	24 June 1982
First autumn frost	–	Cenas parish	15 August 1975
Highest yearly precipitation	1,007 mm (39.6 in)	Priekuļi parish	1928
Lowest yearly precipitation	384 mm (15.1 in)	Ainaži	1939
Highest daily precipitation	160 mm (6.3 in)	Ventspils	9 July 1973
Highest monthly precipitation	330 mm (13.0 in)	Nīca parish	August 1972
Lowest monthly precipitation	0 mm (0 in)	Large parts of territory	May 1938 and May 1941
Thickest snow cover	126 cm (49.6 in)	Gaiziņkalns	March 1931
Month with the most days with blizzards	19 days	Liepāja	February 1956
The most days with fog in a year	143 days	Gaiziņkalns area	1946
Longest-lasting fog	93 hours	Alūksne	1958
Highest atmospheric pressure	31.5 inHg (1,066.7 mb)	Liepāja	January 1907
Lowest atmospheric pressure	27.5 inHg (931.3 mb)	Vidzeme Upland	13 February 1962
The most days with thunderstorms in a year	52 days	Vidzeme Upland	1954
Strongest wind	34 m/s, up to 48 m/s	Not specified	2 November 1969

2019 was the warmest year in the history of weather observation in Latvia with an average temperature +8.1 °C higher.^[105]

Environment

Most of the country is composed of fertile lowland plains and moderate hills. In a typical Latvian landscape, a mosaic of vast forests alternates with fields, farmsteads, and pastures. Arable land is spotted with birch groves and wooded clusters, which afford a habitat for numerous plants and animals. Latvia has hundreds of kilometres of undeveloped seashore—lined by pine forests, dunes, and continuous white sand beaches.^[98][106]

Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union, after Sweden, Finland, Estonia and Slovenia.^[107] Forests account for 3,497,000 ha (8,640,000 acres) or 56% of the total land area.^[96]

Latvia has over 12,500 rivers, which stretch for 38,000 km (24,000 mi). Major rivers include the Daugava River, Lielupe, Gauja, Venta, and Salaca, the largest spawning ground for salmon in the eastern Baltic states. There are 2,256 lakes that are bigger than 1 ha (2.5 acres), with a collective area of 1,000 km² (390 sq mi). Mires occupy 9.9% of Latvia’s territory. Of these, 42% are raised bogs; 49% are fens; and 9% are transitional mires. 70% percent of the mires are untouched by civilization, and they are a refuge for many rare species of plants and animals.^[106]

Agricultural areas account for 1,815,900 ha (4,487,000 acres) or 29% of the total land area.^[95] With the dismantling of collective farms, the area devoted to farming decreased dramatically – now farms are predominantly small. Approximately 200 farms, occupying 2,750 ha (6,800 acres), are engaged in ecologically pure farming (using no artificial fertilizers or pesticides).^[106]

Latvia’s national parks are Gauja National Park in Vidzeme (since 1973),^[108] Ķemeri National Park in Zemgale (1997), Slītere National Park in Kurzeme (1999), and Rāzna National Park in Latgale (2007).^[109]

Latvia has a long tradition of conservation. The first laws and regulations were promulgated in the 16th and 17th centuries.^[106] There are 706 specially state-level protected natural areas in Latvia: four national parks, one biosphere reserve, 42 nature parks, nine areas of protected landscapes, 260 nature reserves, four strict nature reserves, 355 nature monuments, seven protected marine areas and 24 microreserves.^[110] Nationally protected areas account for 12,790 km² (4,940 sq mi) or around 20% of Latvia’s total land area.^[97] Latvia’s Red Book (Endangered Species List of Latvia), which was established in 1977, contains 112 plant species and 119 animal species. Latvia has ratified the international Washington, Bern, and Ramsare conventions.^[106]

The 2012 Environmental Performance Index ranks Latvia second, after Switzerland, based on the environmental performance of the country’s policies.^[111]

Access to biocapacity in Latvia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Latvia had 8.5 global hectares^[112] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.^[113] In 2016 Latvia used 6.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person — their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Latvia contains. As a result, Latvia is running a biocapacity reserve.^[112]

Biodiversity

Approximately 30,000 species of flora and fauna have been registered in Latvia.^[115] Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves.^[116] Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species.^{[citation needed]}

Species that are endangered in other European countries but common in Latvia include: black stork (Ciconia nigra), corncrake (Crex crex), lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina), white-backed woodpecker (Picoides leucotos), Eurasian crane (Grus grus), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), European wolf (Canis lupus) and European lynx (Felis lynx).^[106]

Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests. 56 percent^[96] of Latvia’s territory is covered by forests, mostly Scots pine, birch, and Norway spruce.^{[citation needed]} It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 2.09/10, ranking it 159th globally out of 172 countries.^[117]

Several species of flora and fauna are considered national symbols. Oak (Quercus robur, Latvian: ozols), and linden (Tilia cordata, Latvian: liepa) are Latvia’s national trees and the daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare, Latvian: pīpene) its national flower. The white wagtail (Motacilla alba, Latvian: baltā cielava) is Latvia’s national bird. Its national insect is the two-spot ladybird (Adalia bipunctata, Latvian: divpunktu mārīte). Amber, fossilized tree resin, is one of Latvia’s most important cultural symbols. In ancient times, amber found along the Baltic Sea coast was sought by Vikings as well as traders from Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire. This led to the development of the Amber Road.^[118]

Several nature reserves protect unspoiled landscapes with a variety of large animals. At Pape Nature Reserve, where European bison, wild horses, and recreated aurochs have been reintroduced, there is now an almost complete Holocene megafauna also including moose, deer, and wolf.^[119]

Politics

The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the Saeima, is elected by direct popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the Saeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the Saeima. This system also existed before World War II.^[120] The most senior civil servants are the thirteen Secretaries of State.^[121]

Administrative divisions

Latvia is a unitary state, currently divided into 43 local government units consisting of 36 municipalities (Latvian: novadi) and 7 state cities (Latvian: valstspilsētas) with their own city council and administration: Daugavpils, Jelgava, Jūrmala, Liepāja, Rēzekne, Riga, and Ventspils. There are four historical and cultural regions in Latvia – Courland, Latgale, Vidzeme, Zemgale, which are recognised in Constitution of Latvia. Selonia, a part of Zemgale, is sometimes considered culturally distinct region, but it is not part of any formal division. The borders of historical and cultural regions usually are not explicitly defined and in several sources may vary. In formal divisions, Riga region, which includes the capital and parts of other regions that have a strong relationship with the capital, is also often included in regional divisions; e.g., there are five planning regions of Latvia (Latvian: plānošanas reģioni), which were created in 2009 to promote balanced development of all regions. Under this division Riga region includes large parts of what traditionally is considered Vidzeme, Courland, and Zemgale. Statistical regions of Latvia, established in accordance with the EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, duplicate this division, but divides Riga region into two parts with the capital alone being a separate region.^{[citation needed]}
The largest city in Latvia is Riga, the second largest city is Daugavpils and the third largest city is Liepaja.

Political culture

In 2010 parliamentary election ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats. Left-wing opposition Harmony Centre supported by Latvia’s Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats.^[122] In November 2013, Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse at a supermarket in Riga.^[123]

In 2014 parliamentary election was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by the Latvian Unity Party, the National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers. They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24.^[124] In December 2015, country’s first female Prime Minister, in office since January 2014, Laimdota Straujuma resigned.^[125] In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new Prime Minister Maris Kucinskis.^[126]

In 2018 parliamentary election pro-Russian Harmony was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats, the second and third were the new populist parties KPV LV and New Conservative Party. Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.^[127] In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new Prime Minister Krisjanis Karins of the centre-right New Unity. Karins’ coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.^[128]

Foreign relations

Latvia is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, OSCE, IMF, and WTO. It is also a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Investment Bank. It was a member of the League of Nations (1921–1946). Latvia is part of the Schengen Area and joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2014.

Latvia has established diplomatic relations with 158 countries. It has 44 diplomatic and consular missions and maintains 34 embassies and 9 permanent representations abroad. There are 37 foreign embassies and 11 international organisations in Latvia’s capital Riga. Latvia hosts one European Union institution, the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC).^[129]

Latvia’s foreign policy priorities include co-operation in the Baltic Sea region, European integration, active involvement in international organisations, contribution to European and transatlantic security and defence structures, participation in international civilian and military peacekeeping operations, and development co-operation, particularly the strengthening of stability and democracy in the EU’s Eastern Partnership countries.^{[130][131][132]}

Since the early 1990s, Latvia has been involved in active trilateral Baltic states co-operation with its neighbours Estonia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the Nordic countries. Latvia is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.^[133] Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB-8) is the joint co-operation of the governments of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, and Sweden.^[134] Nordic-Baltic Six (NB-6), comprising Nordic-Baltic countries that are European Union member states, is a framework for meetings on EU-related issues. Interparliamentary co-operation between the Baltic Assembly and Nordic Council was signed in 1992 and since 2006 annual meetings are held as well as regular meetings on other levels.^[134] Joint Nordic-Baltic co-operation initiatives include the education programme NordPlus^[135] and mobility programmes for public administration,^[136] business and industry^[137] and culture.^[138] The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Riga.^[139]

Latvia participates in the Northern Dimension and Baltic Sea Region Programme, European Union initiatives to foster cross-border co-operation in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe. The secretariat of the Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC) will be located in Riga.^[140] In 2013 Riga hosted the annual Northern Future Forum, a two-day informal meeting of the prime ministers of the Nordic-Baltic countries and the UK.^[141] The Enhanced Partnership in Northern Europe or e-Pine is the U.S. Department of State diplomatic framework for co-operation with the Nordic-Baltic countries.^[142]

Latvia hosted the 2006 NATO Summit and since then the annual Riga Conference has become a leading foreign and security policy forum in Northern Europe.^[143] Latvia held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the first half of 2015.^[144]

On 29 April 2022, in an official ceremony in Vaduz, the Ambassador of the Republic of Latvia to the Principality of Liechtenstein, Guna Japiņa, presented her credentials to His Serene Highness Hereditary Prince Alois of Liechtenstein.^[145]

Military

The National Armed Forces (Latvian: Nacionālie bruņotie spēki (NAF)) of Latvia consists of the Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard, Special Tasks Unit, Military Police, NAF staff Battalion, Training and Doctrine Command, and Logistics Command. Latvia’s defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilisation base and a small group of career professionals. From 1 January 2007, Latvia switched to a professional fully contract-based army.^[146]

Latvia participates in international peacekeeping and security operations. Latvian armed forces have contributed to NATO and EU military operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2009), Albania (1999), Kosovo (2000–2009), Macedonia (2003), Iraq (2005–2006), Afghanistan (since 2003), Somalia (since 2011) and Mali (since 2013).^{[147][148][149]} Latvia also took part in the US-led Multi-National Force operation in Iraq (2003–2008)^[150] and OSCE missions in Georgia, Kosovo and Macedonia.^[151] Latvian armed forces contributed to a UK-led Battlegroup in 2013 and the Nordic Battlegroup in 2015 under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union.^[152] Latvia acts as the lead nation in the coordination of the Northern Distribution Network for transportation of non-lethal ISAF cargo by air and rail to Afghanistan.^{[153][154][155]} It is part of the Nordic Transition Support Unit (NTSU), which renders joint force contributions in support of Afghan security structures ahead of the withdrawal of Nordic and Baltic ISAF forces in 2014.^[156] Since 1996 more than 3600 military personnel have participated in international operations,^[148] of whom 7 soldiers perished.^[157] Per capita, Latvia is one of the largest contributors to international military operations.^[158]

Latvian civilian experts have contributed to EU civilian missions: border assistance mission to Moldova and Ukraine (2005–2009), rule of law missions in Iraq (2006 and 2007) and Kosovo (since 2008), police mission in Afghanistan (since 2007) and monitoring mission in Georgia (since 2008).^[147]

Since March 2004, when the Baltic states joined NATO, fighter jets of NATO members have been deployed on a rotational basis for the Baltic Air Policing mission at Šiauliai Airport in Lithuania to guard the Baltic airspace. Latvia participates in several NATO Centres of Excellence: Civil-Military Co-operation in the Netherlands, Cooperative Cyber Defence in Estonia and Energy Security in Lithuania. It plans to establish the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence in Riga.^[159]

Latvia co-operates with Estonia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:

• Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) – infantry battalion for participation in international peace support operations, headquartered near Riga, Latvia;
• Baltic Naval Squadron (BALTRON) – naval force with mine countermeasures capabilities, headquartered near Tallinn, Estonia;
• Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) – air surveillance information system, headquartered near Kaunas, Lithuania;
• Joint military educational institutions: Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia, Baltic Diving Training Centre in Liepāja, Latvia and Baltic Naval Communications Training Centre in Tallinn, Estonia.^[160]

Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas (BALTTRAIN) and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.^[161] In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to join Nordic Defence Cooperation, the defence framework of the Nordic countries.^[162] In November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.^[163]

On 21 April 2022, Latvian Saeima passed amendments developed by the Ministry of Defence for the legislative draft Amendments to the Law on Financing of National Defence, which provide for gradual increase in the defence budget to 2.5% of the country’s GDP over the course of the next three year.^[164]

Human rights

According to the reports by Freedom House and the US Department of State, human rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government:^[165][166] Latvia is ranked above-average among the world’s sovereign states in democracy,^[167] press freedom,^[168] privacy^[169] and human development.^[170]

More than 56% of leading positions are held by women in Latvia, which ranks first in Europe; Latvia ranks first in the world in women’s rights sharing the position with five other European countries according to World Bank.^[171]

The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which was guaranteed basic rights under the constitution and international human rights laws ratified by the Latvian government.^[165][172]

Approximately 206,000 non-citizens^[173] – including stateless persons – have limited access to some political rights – only citizens are allowed to participate in parliamentary or municipal elections, although there are no limitations in regards to joining political parties or other political organizations.^[174][175] In 2011, the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities «urged Latvia to allow non-citizens to vote in municipal elections.»^[176] Additionally, there have been reports of police abuse of detainees and arrestees, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, incidents of violence against ethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.^{[165][177][178]}

Economy

Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004). On 1 January 2014, the euro became the country’s currency, superseding the Lats. According to statistics in late 2013, 45% of the population supported the introduction of the euro, while 52% opposed it.^[179] Following the introduction of the Euro, Eurobarometer surveys in January 2014 showed support for the euro to be around 53%, close to the European average.^[180]

Since the year 2000, Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.^[181] However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis, shortage of credit and huge money resources used for the bailout of Parex Bank.^[182] The Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.^[183][184]

The economic crisis of 2009 proved earlier assumptions that the fast-growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which rose 150% from 2004 to 2006, was a significant contributor to the economic bubble.^[185]

Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been privatised, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. The private sector accounted for 70% of the country’s GDP in 2006.
^[186]

Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997. Representing 10.2% of Latvia’s total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States of America exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.^[187][188]

In 2010 Latvia launched a Residence by Investment program (Golden Visa) in order to attract foreign investors and make local economy benefit from it. This program allows investors to get a Latvian residence permit by investing at least €250,000 in property or in an enterprise with at least 50 employees and an annual turnover of at least €10M.

Economic contraction and recovery (2008–12)

The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate values. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.^[189]

Latvia’s unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.^[190] In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain, which had 19.7%.^[191]

Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column on 15 December 2008:

The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina^[192]

However, by 2010, commentators^[193][194] noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy. Rating agency Standard & Poor’s raised its outlook on Latvia’s debt from negative to stable.^[193] Latvia’s current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.^[193] Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst at Moody’s Investors Service argued that:

The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country’s ‘internal devaluation’ is working.^[195]

The IMF concluded the First Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with the Republic of Latvia in July 2012 announcing that Latvia’s economy has been recovering strongly since 2010, following the deep downturn in 2008–09. Real GDP growth of 5.5 percent in 2011 was underpinned by export growth and a recovery in domestic demand. The growth momentum has continued into 2012 and 2013 despite deteriorating external conditions, and the economy is expected to expand by 4.1 percent in 2014. The unemployment rate has receded from its peak of more than 20 percent in 2010 to around 9.3 percent in 2014.^[196]

Infrastructure

The transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan as well as other Asian countries and the West is large.^[197]

The four biggest ports of Latvia are located in Riga, Ventspils, Liepāja and Skulte. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.^[197] Free port of Ventspils is one of the busiest ports in the Baltic states. Apart from road and railway connections, Ventspils is also linked to oil extraction fields and transportation routes of Russian Federation via system of two pipelines from Polotsk, Belarus.^{[citation needed]}

Riga International Airport is the busiest airport in the Baltic states with 7.8 million passengers in 2019. It has direct flight to over 80 destinations in 30 countries. The only other airport handling regular commercial flights is Liepāja International Airport.
airBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier with hubs in all three Baltic States, but main base in Riga, Latvia.^[198]

Latvian Railway’s main network consists of 1,860 km of which 1,826 km is 1,520 mm Russian gauge railway of which 251 km are electrified, making it the longest railway network in the Baltic States. Latvia’s railway network is currently incompatible with European standard gauge lines.^[199] However, Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki-Tallinn-Riga-Kaunas-Warsaw is under construction and is set to be completed in 2026.^[200]

National road network in Latvia totals 1675 km of main roads, 5473 km of regional roads and 13 064 km of local roads. Municipal roads in Latvia totals 30 439 km of roads and 8039 km of streets.^[201] The best known roads are A1 (European route E67), connecting Warsaw and Tallinn, as well as European route E22, connecting Ventspils and Terehova. In 2017 there were a total of 803,546 licensed vehicles in Latvia.^[202]

Latvia has three large hydroelectric power stations in Pļaviņu HES (908 MW), Rīgas HES (402 MW) and Ķeguma HES-2 (248 MW).^[203] In recent years a couple of dozen of wind farms as well as biogas or biomass power stations of different scale have been built in Latvia.^[204] In 2022, the Latvian Prime Minister announced about the planned investments of 1 billion euros in the new wind farms and the completed project will expectedly provide additional 800 MW of capacity.^[205]

Latvia operates Inčukalns underground gas storage facility, one of the largest underground gas storage facilities in Europe and the only one in the Baltic states. Unique geological conditions at Inčukalns and other locations in Latvia are particularly suitable for underground gas storage.^[206]

Demographics

The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated to be 1.61 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2012, 45.0% of births were to unmarried women.^[207] The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 73.19 years (68.13 years male, 78.53 years female).^[189] As of 2015, Latvia is estimated to have the lowest male-to-female ratio in the world, at 0.85 males per female.^[208] In 2017, there were 1,054,433 females and 895,683 males living in Latvian territory. Every year, more boys are born than girls. Until the age of 39, there are more males than females. From the age of 70, there are 2.3 times as many females as males.

Ethnic groups

As of March 2011, Latvians formed about 62.1% of the population, while 26.9% were Russians, Belarusians 3.3%, Ukrainians 2.2%, Poles 2.2%, Lithuanians 1.2%, Jews 0.3%, Romani people 0.3%, Germans 0.1%, Estonians 0.1% and others 1.3%. 250 people identify as Livonians (Baltic Finnic people native to Latvia).^[209] There were 290,660 «non-citizens» living in Latvia or 14.1% of Latvian residents, mainly Russian settlers who arrived after the occupation of 1940 and their descendants.^[210]

In some cities, including Daugavpils and Rēzekne, ethnic Latvians constitute a minority of the total population. Despite a steadily increasing proportion of ethnic Latvians for more than a decade, ethnic Latvians also still make up slightly less than a half of the population of the capital city of Latvia – Riga.^{[citation needed]}

The share of ethnic Latvians declined from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.^[211] In the context of a decreasing overall population, there were fewer Latvians in 2011 than in 1989, but their share of the population was larger – 1,285,136 (62.1% of the population).^[212]

Language

The sole official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language sub-group of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian – as a dialect of Latvian is also protected by Latvian law but as a historical variation of the Latvian language. Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is still the most widely used minority language by far (in 2011, 34% spoke it at home, including people who were not ethnically Russian).^[213]
While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, schools also include English, German, French and Russian in their curricula. English is also widely accepted in Latvia in business and tourism. As of 2014 there were 109 schools for minorities that use Russian as the language of instruction (27% of all students) for 40% of subjects (the remaining 60% of subjects are taught in Latvian).

On 18 February 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.^[214] According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.^[215]

From 2019, instruction in the Russian language was gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, as well as general instruction in Latvian public high schools,^[216][217] except for subjects related to culture and history of the Russian minority, such as Russian language and literature classes.^[218]

Religion

The largest religion in Latvia is Christianity (79%).^[189][219] The largest groups as of 2011 were:

• Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 708,773^[219]
• Roman Catholic – 500,000^[219]
• Russian Orthodox – 370,000^[219]

In the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 38% of Latvian citizens responded that «they believe there is a God», while 48% answered that «they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force» and 11% stated that «they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force».

Lutheranism was more prominent before the Soviet occupation, when it was adhered to by about 60% of the population, a reflection of the country’s strong historical links with the Nordic countries, and to the influence of the Hansa in particular and Germany in general. Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a slightly greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adversely. An internal document of 18 March 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.^[220]

The country’s Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church. In 2011, there were 416 religious Jews in Latvia and 319 Muslims in Latvia.^[219] As of 2004, there were more than 600 Latvian neopagans, Dievturi (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.^[221][222] About 21% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion.^[219]

Education and science

The University of Latvia and Riga Technical University are two major universities in the country, both established on the basis of Riga Polytechnical Institute, which was evacuated to Moscow in 1914 when the World War I was started, and located in Riga.^[223] Other important universities, which were established on the base of State University of Latvia, include the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies (established in 1939 on the basis of the Faculty of Agriculture) and Riga Stradiņš University (established in 1950 on the basis of the Faculty of Medicine). Both nowadays cover a variety of different fields. The University of Daugavpils is another significant centre of education.

Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrolment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% decline.^[224]

Latvian policy in science and technology has set out the long-term goal of transitioning from labor-consuming economy to knowledge-based economy.^[225] By 2020 the government aims to spend 1.5% of GDP on research and development, with half of the investments coming from the private sector. Latvia plans to base the development of its scientific potential on existing scientific traditions, particularly in organic chemistry, medical chemistry, genetic engineering, physics, materials science and information technologies.^[226] The greatest number of patents, both nationwide and abroad, are in medical chemistry.^[227] Latvia was ranked 38th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 34th in 2019.^{[228][229][230][231]}

Health

The Latvian healthcare system is a universal programme, largely funded through government taxation.^[232] It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.^[233] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007 and 121 in 2006.^{[234][235][236]}

Culture

Traditional Latvian folklore, especially the dance of the folk songs, dates back well over a thousand years. More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identified.^[237]

Between the 13th and 19th centuries, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class.^{[citation needed]} They developed distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the United States, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life.^{[citation needed]} Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions. For example, one of the most popular celebrations is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice—which Latvians celebrate on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.^{[citation needed]}

In the 19th century, Latvian nationalist movements emerged. They promoted Latvian culture and encouraged Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded by Latvians as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.^{[citation needed]} With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audience.^[238]

The Latvian Song and Dance Festival is an important event in Latvian culture and social life. It has been held since 1873, normally every five years. Approximately 30,000 performers altogether participate in the event.^[239] Folk songs and classical choir songs are sung, with emphasis on a cappella singing, though modern popular songs have recently been incorporated into the repertoire as well.^[240]

After incorporation into the Soviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre, scenography, choir music, and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.^[241]

During July 2014, Riga hosted the eighth World Choir Games as it played host to over 27,000 choristers representing over 450 choirs and over 70 countries. The festival is the biggest of its kind in the world and is held every two years in a different host city.^[242]

Starting in 2019 Latvia hosts the inaugural Riga Jurmala Music Festival, a new festival in which world-famous orchestras and conductors perform across four weekends during the summer. The festival takes place at the Latvian National Opera, the Great Guild, and the Great and Small Halls of the Dzintari Concert Hall. This year features the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra and the Russian National Orchestra.^[243]

Cuisine

Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishes. Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia’s location on the Baltic Sea. Latvian cuisine has been influenced by neighbouring countries. Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs, and pork. Latvian food is generally quite fatty and uses few spices.^[244]

Grey peas with speck are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians. Sorrel soup (skābeņu zupa) is also consumed by Latvians.^[245] Rye bread is considered the national staple.^[246]

Sport

Ice hockey is usually considered the most popular sport in Latvia. Latvia has had many famous hockey stars like Helmuts Balderis, Artūrs Irbe, Kārlis Skrastiņš and Sandis Ozoliņš and more recently Zemgus Girgensons, whom the Latvian people have strongly supported in international and NHL play, expressed through the dedication of using the NHL’s All Star Voting to bring Zemgus to number one in voting.^[247] Dinamo Riga is the country’s strongest hockey club, playing in the Latvian Hockey Higher League. The national tournament is the Latvian Hockey Higher League, held since 1931. The 2006 IIHF World Championship was held in Riga.

The second most popular sport is basketball. Latvia has a long basketball tradition, as the Latvian national basketball team won the first ever EuroBasket in 1935 and silver medals in 1939, after losing the final to Lithuania by one point. Latvia has had many European basketball stars like Jānis Krūmiņš, Maigonis Valdmanis, Valdis Muižnieks, Valdis Valters, Igors Miglinieks, as well as the first Latvian NBA player Gundars Vētra. Andris Biedriņš is one of the most well-known Latvian basketball players, who played in the NBA for the Golden State Warriors and the Utah Jazz. Current NBA players include Kristaps Porziņģis, who plays for the Washington Wizards, Dāvis Bertāns, who plays for the Dallas Mavericks, and Rodions Kurucs, who last played for the Milwaukee Bucks. Former Latvian basketball club Rīgas ASK won the Euroleague tournament three times in a row before becoming defunct. Currently, VEF Rīga, which competes in EuroCup, is the strongest professional basketball club in Latvia. BK Ventspils, which participates in EuroChallenge, is the second strongest basketball club in Latvia, previously winning LBL eight times and BBL in 2013.^{[citation needed]} Latvia was one of the EuroBasket 2015 hosts.

Other popular sports include football, floorball, tennis, volleyball, cycling, bobsleigh and skeleton. The Latvian national football team’s only major FIFA tournament participation has been the 2004 UEFA European Championship.^[248]

Latvia has participated successfully in both Winter and Summer Olympics. The most successful Olympic athlete in the history of independent Latvia has been Māris Štrombergs, who became a two-time Olympic champion in 2008 and 2012 at Men’s BMX.^[249]

In Boxing, Mairis Briedis is the first and only Latvian to date, to win a boxing world title, having held the WBC cruiserweight title from 2017 to 2018, the WBO cruiserweight title in 2019, and the IBF / The Ring magazine cruiserweight titles in 2020.

In 2017, Latvian tennis player Jeļena Ostapenko won the 2017 French Open Women’s singles title, being the first unseeded player to do so in the open era.

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Government

• President of Latvia
• Parliament of Latvia
• Government of Latvia
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia
• Statistical Office of Latvia
• Latvian Institute
• Bank of Latvia

General information

• Latvia Online
• European Union country profile
• Britannica Online Encyclopedia
• BBC News country profile
• Latvia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Latvia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Latvia at Curlie
• Key Development Forecasts for Latvia from International Futures

Culture

• Latvian Cultural Canon
• Latvian Culture Map
• Latvian Culture Portal
• Livonian Culture Portal
• State Agency of Cultural Heritage
• National Library of Latvia Archived 1 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Latvian Heritage
• Latvian Music Information Centre

Travel

• Official Latvian Tourism Portal

Maps