Как пишется масло подсолнечное

Теперь вы знаете какие однокоренные слова подходят к слову Как правильно пишется растительное масло, а так же какой у него корень, приставка, суффикс и окончание. Вы можете дополнить список однокоренных слов к слову «Как правильно пишется растительное масло», предложив свой вариант в комментариях ниже, а также выразить свое несогласие проведенным с морфемным разбором.

Найдите правильный ответ на вопрос ✅ «Как пишется слово (масло) …» по предмету 📘 Русский язык, а если вы сомневаетесь в правильности ответов или ответ отсутствует, то попробуйте воспользоваться умным поиском на сайте и найти ответы на похожие вопросы.

Смотреть другие ответы

Новые вопросы по русскому языку

Обозначь орфограмму, на которую нужно обратить внимание в каждом из данных слов. Образуй от этих слов наречия. Придумай и запиши сними словосочетания. Укажи главные и зависимые слова. Легкий- Дерзкий- Меткий- Жуткий —

Ответы (2)

Укажите, твердый или мягкий согласный произносится перед Е: Кашне, кларнет, компетентный, кузен, кюре, менеджер, модернизм, нейтрон, партер, протекция, реглан, рейд, сессия, синтез, террор, федеральный, форель, шинель, экспресс, альтернатива,

Ответы (1)

×òî òàêîå «ðàñòèòåëüíîå ìàñëî»? Êàê ïðàâèëüíî ïèøåòñÿ äàííîå ñëîâî. Ïîíÿòèå è òðàêòîâêà.

ðàñòèòåëüíîå ìàñëî ? ïèùåâûå æèðû
? èç, ñåìåíà
ìàñëî: ïîäñîëíå÷íîå.
ïîñòíîå ìàñëî. îëèâêîâîå. äåðåâÿííîå.
õëîïêîâîå. ëüíÿíîå. ñîåâîå. àðàõèäíîå. êîêîñîâîå.
êîíîïëÿíîå.
êàñòîðîâîå.
êóêóðóçíîå. ðàïñîâîå. êóíæóòíîå.
øðîò — îòæàòûå ñåìåíà ìàñëè÷íûõ ðàñòåíèé.

Расти́тельные масла́, растительные жиры — продукты, извлекаемые из растительного сырья и состоящие из триглицеридов жирных кислот и сопутствующих им веществ (фосфолипиды, свободные жирные кислоты, воски, стеролы, вещества, придающие окраску и др.).

Все значения словосочетания «растительное масло»

МА́СЛО, -а, мн. (спец., для обозначения различных сортов и видов) масла́, ма́сел, масла́м, ср. 1. Жировое вещество, получаемое из молока домашних животных, из семян, цветов или плодов некоторых растений и из веществ минерального происхождения. Топленое масло. Растительное масло. Эфирные масла. Смазочное масло.

Все значения слова «масло»

РАСТИ́ТЕЛЬНЫЙ, —ая, —ое. 1. Относящийся к растению (растениям). Растительный организм. Растительные вещества. Растительное происхождение.

Все значения слова «растительный»

• В качестве основы для приготовления мази можно использовать и масла растительного происхождения – подсолнечное, оливковое.

• Как было открыто сливочное масло, сосед по кухне и родственник по химическому составу масла растительного?

• Требуется: 1/2 л воды, 120 г мяса, 150 г капусты квашеной, 10 г моркови, 10 г корня петрушки, 20 г лука репчатого, 50 г томатов консервированных, 10 г масла растительного, 2 г чеснока, 2 г сахара, 20 г сметаны, соль, зелень по вкусу.

• (все предложения)

• масло сливочное
• сливочное масло
• столовая ложка растительного масла
• кукуруза консервированная
• спаржевая фасоль
• (ещё синонимы…)

• масло
• (ещё ассоциации…)

• елей
• молоко
• маслина
• касторка
• маслозавод
• (ещё ассоциации…)

• растительность
• травоядные
• (ещё ассоциации…)

• Разбор по составу слова «масло»
• Разбор по составу слова «растительный»

• Как правильно пишется слово «масло»
• Как правильно пишется слово «растительный»

«МаслО» или «маслА» – как правильно пишется?

В диктантах, сочинениях, изложениях учащихся можно встретить разные ошибки: простые, сложные; типичные, редкие. Иногда совершенно понятное с точки зрения орфографии слово вызывает сомнение у пишущих. На помощь в этом случае приходят грамматика и этимология.

Значение и разбор слова

Выясним, как пишется масло. Итак, данная лексема оканчивается на букву о.

Это нарицательное имя существительное второго склонения, среднего рода, единственного числа, именительного падежа.

В предложении выполняет функцию подлежащего, в косвенных падежах – дополнения. В словосочетании занимает главную позицию, согласовывая в роде, числе и падеже зависимые имена прилагательные (вкусное, сливочное), порядковые числительные (первое, второе), определительные местоимения (всякое, каждое, иное).

Семантика: вещество, обладающее свойствами размягчения при повышенной температуре воздуха и затвердения при пониженной, использующееся для смазывания поверхности, намазывания на какой-либо предмет. Слово является многозначным, употребляется в прямом и переносном смысле.

Синонимы: мазь, смазка, бальзам, жир.

Правило орфографии

Правописание слова «масло» связано с этимологией лексемы. Конструкция появилась в русской речи из праславянского языка, аналогичные формы есть и в польском, и в украинском, и в сербском. Правописание слова запоминается, то есть лексема является словарной.

Примеры предложений

Растительное масло полезно для здоровья детей и взрослых, так как способствует усиленному пищеварению.

Оливковое масло – лучшая заправка для салатов из свежих овощей: помидоров, огурцов, болгарских перцев и зелени.

Анна Илларионовна положила сливочное масло в большую кастрюлю с дымящейся гречневой кашей и начала раскладывать еду по тарелкам всем членам многочисленной семьи Кузнецовых.

Читайте также, как пишутся другие проблемные слова:

Источник

Поиск ответа

Добрый день!
Не будет ли » масло масляное » написание «Культурно-просветительский»?

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Нет, сочетание культурно-просветительский корректно.

Добрый день! Как правильно писать: МаслЕный, маслЕННый или маслЯный?
Что-то является прилагательным, а что-то причастием, наверное, еще зависимое слово должно быть?

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Грамотно ли сказать: в конечном итоге? Или это избыточно, как » масло масляное «?

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Словосочетание главный победитель нельзя назвать корректным: «неглавным», второстепенным победитель быть не может.

Уточняющий вопрос к вопросу №250741.
Повторюсь, как звучит предложение. «Это будет действительно эксклюзив, причем в единичном экземпляре». Скажите, а слово «эксклюзив» не подразумевает «нечто», изготовленное в единичном экземпляре? Не получается ли » масло масляное «.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Понятие «эксклюзив» не обязательно означает «единичный экземпляр».

Вопрос № 250125
Вопрос № 250072
«и обещает сделать это к июню месяцу.»

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

К сожалению, Вы ошибаетесь. Сочетания родовых и видовых наименований в русском языке очень частотны: город Москва, месяц июнь, сеть Интернет, животное корова и т. д. Выражение июнь месяц неграмотным не является. Более того, это и подобные выражения получают фиксацию в словарях русского языка: http://gramota.ru/slovari/dic/?word=*%EC%E5%F1%FF%F6&all=x

Скажите, пожалуйста, можно ли употреблять словосочетание «исламская мечеть» или это » масло масляное »
Спасибо

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Добрый день!
Скажите, пожалуйста, правильно ли с точки зрения русского языка название «Отдел перспективного развития»? Или это » масло масляное «? Что-то в этом смущает.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Возможно ли словосочетание «архивное хранение»? Это не » масло масляное «? Заранее спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Верно: _ масло масляное _. Такое написание зафиксировано в словарях.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Это сочетание избыточно, правильно: _обслуживание техники_.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Источник

Растительное и подсолнечное масло: отличия

Различают несколько разновидностей растительных масел, и подсолнечное тоже входит в их число. Кстати, Россия является одной из ведущих стран, производящих именно подсолнечное масло. Для того, чтобы разобраться в этом вопросе более подробно, рекомендуется знать несколько интересных фактов о растительных маслах и о том, как лучше употреблять их в пищу.

Различают несколько разновидностей растительных масел, и подсолнечное тоже входит в их число. Кстати, Россия является одной из ведущих стран, производящих именно подсолнечное масло. Для того, чтобы разобраться в этом вопросе более подробно, рекомендуется знать несколько интересных фактов о растительных маслах и о том, как лучше употреблять их в пищу.

Что нужно знать о растительном масле

Масло растительного происхождения — один из популярных видов жиров. Мы заправляем им салаты и жарим на нём продукты. Извлечение любого растительного масла производится так: нагретые либо измельчённые семена или плоды отжимают по особой технологии, а культуры, используемые для производства такой продукции, относят к масленичным. Консистенция растительного масла бывает разной:

Методов получения масел (отжимов) тоже несколько. Они бывают:

Различают нерафинированное растительное масло, получаемое после того, как его отфильтруют от примесей. В нём сохранены все ценные вещества вместе с запахом и вкусовыми качествами. Такое масло густое, имеет насыщенный цвет, а если его долго хранить, оно начинает постепенно выделять осадок. Им идеально заправлять любые салаты, а вот жарка на нём проблематична.

Рафинированные масла подвергают, как минимум, нескольким методам очистки, кроме фильтрации. Обычно их нейтрализуют с помощью щелочного состава. Такой продукт не имеет ни запаха, ни вкуса. Он прекрасно выдерживает хранение и как раз предназначен для жарки. Дыма и пены во время жарки рафинированное масло почти не даёт, поэтому в кулинарных целях его применять идеально.

Бывают ещё гидратированные масла, очищаемые горячей водой. При очистке воду распыляют особым образом, а сам продукт — прозрачный, без мути и примесей, не имеющий никакого осадка.

Дезодорированные масла готовят путём очистки горячим паром. При этом используют вакуумную методику. У масла тоже отсутствуют вкус, цвет и запах.

Любое растительное масло является высококалорийным продуктом, так как состоит из жира почти на сто процентов. Конечно, убирать его из рациона питания не рекомендуется, даже если человек соблюдает очень строгую диету. Дефицит растительных масел в организме чреват быстрым появлением недостатка витамина Е, а также всех типов жирных кислот, участвующих в формировании клеток.

Подсолнечное масло

Как уже было сказано, этот вид масла получают из подсолнечных семечек. Почти все маслоэкстракционные заводы изготавливают подсолнечное масло с соблюдением непростого технологического процесса. Вначале семена подсолнечника помещают в рушально-веечное отделение, где их тщательно очищают, а затем обрушивают, отделяя лузгу от ядрышек. После этого семечки попадают в вальцевый цех, где ядра обрабатывают вальцами. В результате получается мятка, которую помещают в отдел прессования. Там есть специальные жаровни, где масло подвергают тепловой обработке и отжимают.

После отжима продукт отстаивают и хранят в течение некоторого времени. Масса, получаемая в процессе обработки, называется мезга. Её обрабатывают в маслоэкстракционном цехе и получают смесь, которую в дальнейшем используют в качестве корма для домашних животных и птиц.

После хранения и отстаивания масло отправляют в экстрактор. Это специальный аппарат для экстрагирования продукта с помощью растворителей органического происхождения. В результате экстрагирования получаются:

Из мисцеллы и шрота масло отгоняют в экстракторе, затем очищают (рафинируют), убирая из него органические примеси. Есть несколько стадий рафинирования, которые отличаются сложностью и последовательностью процесса. В целом, изготавливают масло долго, с применением сложных технологий, но результатом становится полезный продукт, доступный для каждого потребителя.

Схожесть и различие подсолнечного и растительного масел

Как уже было сказано, подсолнечное масло — это разновидность растительного, а сырьём для его изготовления служат подсолнечные семечки. Отличия подсолнечного масла от других видов этого продукта тоже есть, например:

Кроме подсолнечного масла, желающие всегда могут выбрать в магазинах и другие виды масел, так как каждый из них приносит организму определённую пользу.

Сорта растительных масел

Сортов растительных масел много и среди них различают следующие:

Тем не менее, лечиться оливковым маслом без предварительной консультации с врачом нельзя.

Полезные свойства растительного масла

Люди, которые стараются вести здоровый образ жизни, всегда употребляют в пищу растительное масло. Прежде всего, любой его вид богат содержанием:

Любое растительное масло хорошего качества улучшает работу желудка и кишечника, способствует очищению организма от «плохого» холестерина и других вредных веществ. Главное — чтобы продукт был изготовлен именно из полезного сырья, с применением корректных производственных технологий. Некоторые специалисты рекомендуют отдавать приоритет маслу, не подвергавшемуся искусственной обработке (рафинированию, дезодорированию и проч.). Считается, что масло, при производстве которого был применён холодный отжим, самое полезное, при условии минимальной обработки. Безусловно, чем короче её процесс, тем больше полезных компонентов сохраняет продукт. Например, под воздействием высоких температур при нагревании сырья много витаминов теряется, поэтому сторонники здорового образа жизни предпочитают покупать нерафинированные виды масел.

Выбор масла

Эксперты «Росконтроля», изучив технологии изготовления и состав известных в России марок растительного масла, подготовили их рейтинг, на основании которого потребители могут судить об их пользе, популярности и соответствии нормативам, установленным ГОСТ.

На первом месте находится подсолнечное масло марки «Слобода». При его производстве были соблюдены все необходимые правила безопасности, а характеристики и состав, описанные на этикетке, полностью соответствуют действительности, равно как и сорт продукта — высший. Употреблять его в пищу можно без всякого опасения.

На второе место эксперты поставили масло «Мистер Рикко». Его тестировали впервые, не выявив никаких серьёзных недостатков, поэтому и рекомендуют к покупке. Раньше сотрудники «Росконтроля» не знали, как им относиться к этой марке, но после тщательного тестирования они утверждают, что ей можно доверять.

На третьем месте находится известное масло «Олейна». Оно в изобилии содержит линолевую кислоту, мало в чём уступая другим видам масла по основным характеристикам. Масло «Олейна» до сих пор считают продуктом первого сорта, хотя, по идее, оно вполне могло бы претендовать и на высший сорт.

Четвёртое место эксперты отдали растительному маслу «Злато». Для продукта первого сорта оно обладает вполне приличными качествами и произведено в полном соответствии со всеми требованиями безопасности. Все показатели производства досконально проверены специалистами.

На пятом месте — масло «Золотая семечка». У него оказался завышенным только один из показателей, но пределов нормы он не превышает.

Масло «Благо», к сожалению, попало на шестое место, так как производитель позиционирует его как продукт класса премиум, которому оно точно не соответствует. Это показал лабораторный анализ. Что касается его пригодности к употреблению в пищу, с этим проблем не возникает.

Источник

Как правильно: масляный или масленый?

Выбор буквы в этом случае зависит от значения слова.

Администрация города Екатеринбурга в рамках проекта «Екатеринбург говорит правильно» обращается к вопросу о корректном написании слов масленый и масляный.

Как отмечает справочно-информационный портал «Русский язык», выбор буквы в этом случае зависит от значения слова, однако ударение всегда остается на первом слоге.

Масленый пишется в следующих случаях:

— покрытый, испачканный, пропитанный маслом (масленые руки);

— выражающий чувственность, вожделение (о глазах, взгляде) (следить маслеными глазами);

— слащавый, льстивый, заискивающий (масленый голосок).

Слово масляный же употребляется в других значениях:

— разведенный на масле (масляные краски);

— относящийся к маслу или соотнесенный с ним, свойственный маслу, работающий на масле (масляный насос);

— написанный масляными красками (масляный портрет).

Таким образом, правильно: масленый пирог, масленый взгляд, масляный крем.

Фото www.yandex.ru

Новости на эту же тему

Это первое дошкольное учреждение Ленинского района с собственным бассейном.

Здание учреждения было законсервировано с 2013 года.

В олимпиаде приняли участие 279 учащихся.

Фоторепортажи

На Официальном портале Екатеринбурга расположена наиболее полная информация о городе и его истории, опубликованы новости Екатеринбурга и его окрестностей, фоторепортажи. Городской портал Екатеринбурга содержит справочные материалы: афиша театров и кино, информация о погоде, каталог предприятий Екатеринбурга, пробки в Екатеринбурге, полная структура органов местного самоуправления, таких как Администрация города Екатеринбурга. Большое количество официальных документов размещено в разделах «Официально», «Власть Екатеринбурга».

На портале работает «Электронная приемная» Администрации Екатеринбурга, действуют сервисы «Поиск лекарств в аптеках города», «Запись к врачу онлайн», «Квартальные Екатеринбурга», «Расчет выкупной цены земельного участка» и другие.

Ознакомиться с новостями, задать вопросы и получить ответы по актуальным темам можно также в рубрике «Гость портала» на Информационном портале Екатеринбурга.

Источник

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides.^[1] Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature.^[2][3] Vegetable oils are usually edible.

Uses[edit]

In antiquity[edit]

Oils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BCE^[4] and 4500 BCE in present-day Israel and Palestine.^[5]

In addition to use as food, fats and oils (both vegetable and mineral) have long been used as fuel, typically in lamps which were a principal source of illumination in ancient times. Oils may have been used for lubrication, but there is no evidence for this. Vegetable oils were probably more valuable as food and lamp-oil;^{[citation needed]} Babylonian mineral oil was known to be used as fuel, but there are no references to lubrication. Pliny the Elder reported that animal-derived fats such as lard were used to lubricate the axles of carts.^[6]

Culinary[edit]

Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, and schmaltz. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:

• Shortening – as in giving pastries a crumbly texture.
• Enriching – adding calories and satisfaction in consumption
• Texture – altering how ingredients combine, especially fats and starches
• Flavoring – examples include olive, sesame, or almond oil
• Flavor base – oils can also «carry» flavors of other ingredients, such as peppers,^[7] since many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.

Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, 100 °C (212 °F), and used to fry foods. Oils for this purpose must have a high flash point. Such oils include both the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. – and tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran. The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.

Industrial[edit]

Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.

Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as drying oils, and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in alkyd resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as insulators as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by Fischer esterification. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable hydraulic fluid^[8] and lubricant.^[9]

One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming rancid. Oils that are more stable, such as ben oil or mineral oil, are thus preferred for industrial uses. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses, owing to the presence of hydroxyl group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to Nylon 11. Castor oil may also be reacted with epichlorohydrin to make a glycidyl ether which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with epoxy resins.

Pet food additive[edit]

Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO^[10] defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.

Fuel[edit]

Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles but straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity. The use of vegetable oils as alternative energy is growing^{[citation needed]} and the availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing.^{[citation needed]}

The NNFCC estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%.^[11]

Production[edit]

The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.

[edit]

Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed «crushing» or «pressing.» This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most health-food customers in the United States and in Europe.^{[citation needed]} There are several different types of mechanical extraction.^[12] Expeller pressing extraction is common, though the screw press, ram press, and ghani (powered mortar and pestle) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India.^[13] The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India:^[14]

Method	Percentage extracted
Ghani[15]	20–30%
Expellers	34–37%
Solvent	40–43%

[edit]

The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the «newer» industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils. After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about 300 °F (149 °C).^[16]

Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.^[17]

Hydrogenation[edit]

Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as vegetable shortening, will remain solid at room temperature.

Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a saturated fat, has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a polyunsaturated oil is left incompletely-hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it is a «partially hydrogenated oil» (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil’s viscosity and melting point increase.

While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to unsaturated trans fatty acids in the oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from coronary heart disease,^[18] among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food.^[19]

Deodorization[edit]

In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point or to about 450 °F (232 °C),^[20] and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through a deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil’s natural compounds.^[21][22][23]

Occupational exposure[edit]

People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for vegetable oil mist exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.^[24]

Yield[edit]

Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in tons (t) of oil produced per hectare (ha) of land per year (yr). Oil palm is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year.

Crop	Yield (t/ha/yr)
Palm oil [25]	4.0
Coconut oil [26]	1.4
Canola oil [27]	1.4
Soybean oil [27]	0.6
Sunflower oil [26]	0.6

Particular oils[edit]

The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as SVO or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was:^[28]

Oil source	World consumption (million metric tons)	Notes
Palm	41.31	The most widely produced tropical oil, also used to make biofuel
Soybean	41.28	One of the most widely consumed cooking oils
Rapeseed	18.24	One of the most widely used cooking oils, also used as fuel. Canola is a variety (cultivar) of rapeseed.
Sunflower seed	9.91	A common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel
Peanut	4.82	Mild-flavored cooking oil
Cottonseed	4.99	A major food oil, often used in industrial food processing
Palm kernel	4.85	From the seed of the African palm tree
Coconut	3.48	Used in cooking, cosmetics and soaps
Olive	2.84	Used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps

Note that these figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher viscosity.

Other significant oils include:

• Corn oil, one of the most common cooking oils, is used for cooking oil, salad dressing, margarine, mayonnaise, prepared goods like spaghetti sauce and baking mixes, and to fry prepared foods like potato chips and French fries.
• Grape seed oil, used in cooking and cosmetics
• Hazelnut oil and other nut oils
• Linseed oil, from flax seeds
• Rice bran oil, from rice grains
• Safflower oil, a flavorless and colorless cooking oil
• Sesame oil, used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India
• Açaí palm oil, used in culinary and cosmetics
• Jambú oil, is extracted from the flowers, leaves and stem from jambu (Acmella oleracea), contains spilanthol
• Graviola oil, derived from Annona muricata
• Tucumã oil, from Astrocaryum aculeatum is used to manufacture soap.
• Brazil nut oil, culinary and cosmetics use
• Carapa oil, pharmaceutical use and anti-mosquito candle
• Buriti oil, from Mauritia flexuosa, used in cosmetics (skin and hair care)
• Passion fruit oil, derived from Passiflora edulis, has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food.
• Pracaxi oil, obtained from Pentaclethra macroloba, cosmetics use
• Solarium oil, derived from chloroplasts, various applications in cooking

Composition of fats[edit]

Properties of vegetable oils^[29][30]

The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.
Type	Processing treatment[31]	Saturated fatty acids	Monounsaturated fatty acids	Polyunsaturated fatty acids	Smoke point
Total[29]	Oleic acid (ω-9)	Total[29]	α-Linolenic acid (ω-3)	Linoleic acid (ω-6)	ω-6:3 ratio
Avocado[32]		11.6	70.6	52–66[33]	13.5	1	12.5	12.5:1	250 °C (482 °F)[34]
Brazil nut[35]		24.8	32.7	31.3	42.0	0.1	41.9	419:1	208 °C (406 °F)[36]
Canola[37]		7.4	63.3	61.8	28.1	9.1	18.6	2:1	238 °C (460 °F)[36]
Coconut[38]		82.5	6.3	6	1.7				175 °C (347 °F)[36]
Corn[39]		12.9	27.6	27.3	54.7	1	58	58:1	232 °C (450 °F)[40]
Cottonseed[41]		25.9	17.8	19	51.9	1	54	54:1	216 °C (420 °F)[40]
Cottonseed[42]	hydrogenated	93.6	1.5		0.6	0.2	0.3	1.5:1
Flaxseed/linseed[43]		9.0	18.4	18	67.8	53	13	0.2:1	107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed		10.5	14.3	14.3	74.7	–	74.7	very high	216 °C (421 °F)[44]
Hemp seed[45]		7.0	9.0	9.0	82.0	22.0	54.0	2.5:1	166 °C (330 °F)[46]
Olive[47]		13.8	73.0	71.3	10.5	0.7	9.8	14:1	193 °C (380 °F)[36]
Palm[48]		49.3	37.0	40	9.3	0.2	9.1	45.5:1	235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[49]	hydrogenated	88.2	5.7		0
Peanut[50]		16.2	57.1	55.4	19.9	0.318	19.6	61.6:1	232 °C (450 °F)[40]
Rice bran oil		25	38.4	38.4	36.6	2.2	34.4[51]	15.6	232 °C (450 °F)[52]
High-oleic safflower oil[53]		7.5	75.2	75.2	12.8	0	12.8	very high	212 °C (414 °F)[36]
Sesame[54]		14.2	39.7	39.3	41.7	0.3	41.3	138:1
Soybean[55]		15.6	22.8	22.6	57.7	7	51	7.3:1	238 °C (460 °F)[40]
Soybean[56]	partially hydrogenated	14.9	43.0	42.5	37.6	2.6	34.9	13.4:1
Walnut oil[57]	unrefined	9.1	22.8	22.2	63.3	10.4	52.9	5:1	160 °C (320 °F)[58]
Sunflower[59]		8.99	63.4	62.9	20.7	0.16	20.5	128:1	227 °C (440 °F)[40]

Seed oil[edit]

Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the seed (endosperm) of some plants, rather than the fruit (pericarp). Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils.

Pre-pressing[edit]

Extracting the oils first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent expelling the rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction.^[60]

History[edit]

Such oils have been part of human culture for millennia.^[4] Oils such as poppy seed, rapeseed, linseed, almond oil, sesame seed, safflower, and cottonseed were variously used since at least the Bronze Age in the Middle East.^[4] Vegetable oils have been used for lighting fuel, cooking, medicine and lubrication.
Palm oil has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe and it became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain’s Industrial Revolution.^[61] Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers’ (now Unilever) «Sunlight», and
B. J. Johnson Company’s (now Colgate-Palmolive) «Palmolive»,^[62] and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries.^[63]

In 1780 Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later Michel Eugène Chevreul deduced that these fats were esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Wilhelm Normann, a German chemist introduced the hydrogenation of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as trans fats, leading to the development of the global production of margarine and vegetable shortening.

In the USA cottonseed oil was developed, and marketed by Procter & Gamble as a creamed shortening – Crisco – as early as 1911. Ginning mills were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially hydrogenated to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid.

Soybeans are protein-rich, and the medium viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. Henry Ford established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car «almost entirely» out of soybeans.^[64] Roger Drackett had a successful new product with Windex, but he invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment.^[65] By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become the most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to palm oil. In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including China (16.6 MT), US (10.9 MT), Argentina (8.4 MT), Brazil (8.2 MT), and EU (3.2 MT).^[66]

The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of vegetable oil as a fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. Rudolf Diesel designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers having a source of fuel readily available. Diesel’s first engine ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but peanut oil. In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared «International Biodiesel Day».^[67] The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937.^[68] Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, biodiesel, produced from oils or fats using transesterification is more widely used. It is Led by Brazil, many countries built biodiesel plants during the 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common biofuel in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles.^[69]

In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word «rape» was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name «canola» (from «Canada Oil low acid»). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved use of the canola name in January 1985,^[70] and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats, and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.

Used oil[edit]

A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants.

Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as a direct fuel, as well as in the production of biodiesel, livestock feed, pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals.

Since 2002, an increasing number of European Union countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed.^[71]

Shelf life[edit]

Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from the exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of oxidation products, such as peroxides and hydroperoxides, plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life.^[72][73]

Product labeling[edit]

In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product.^[74] Also, oils in Canadian food products which have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word «modified» or «hydrogenated» when listed as an ingredient.^[75] A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as «vegetable oil» in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing «vegetable oil» as an ingredient is not acceptable.^[74]

From December 2014, all food products produced in the European Union were legally required to indicate the specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation.^[76]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Gupta, Monoj K. (2007). Practical guide for vegetable oil processing. AOCS Press, Urbana, Illinois. ISBN 978-1-893997-90-5.
• Jee, Michael, ed. (2002). Oils and Fats Authentication. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, England. ISBN 1-84127-330-9.
• Salunkhe, D.K., Chavan, J.K., Adsule, R.N. and Kadam, S.S. (1992). World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. ISBN 0-442-00112-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Vegetable oils, or vegetable fats, are oils extracted from seeds or from other parts of fruits. Like animal fats, vegetable fats are mixtures of triglycerides.^[1] Soybean oil, grape seed oil, and cocoa butter are examples of seed oils, or fats from seeds. Olive oil, palm oil, and rice bran oil are examples of fats from other parts of fruits. In common usage, vegetable oil may refer exclusively to vegetable fats which are liquid at room temperature.^[2][3] Vegetable oils are usually edible.

Uses[edit]

In antiquity[edit]

Oils extracted from plants have been used since ancient times and in many cultures. Archaeological evidence shows that olives were turned into olive oil by 6000 BCE^[4] and 4500 BCE in present-day Israel and Palestine.^[5]

In addition to use as food, fats and oils (both vegetable and mineral) have long been used as fuel, typically in lamps which were a principal source of illumination in ancient times. Oils may have been used for lubrication, but there is no evidence for this. Vegetable oils were probably more valuable as food and lamp-oil;^{[citation needed]} Babylonian mineral oil was known to be used as fuel, but there are no references to lubrication. Pliny the Elder reported that animal-derived fats such as lard were used to lubricate the axles of carts.^[6]

Culinary[edit]

Many vegetable oils are consumed directly, or indirectly as ingredients in food – a role that they share with some animal fats, including butter, ghee, lard, and schmaltz. The oils serve a number of purposes in this role:

• Shortening – as in giving pastries a crumbly texture.
• Enriching – adding calories and satisfaction in consumption
• Texture – altering how ingredients combine, especially fats and starches
• Flavoring – examples include olive, sesame, or almond oil
• Flavor base – oils can also «carry» flavors of other ingredients, such as peppers,^[7] since many flavors are due to chemicals that are soluble in oil.

Oils can be heated to temperatures significantly higher than the boiling point of water, 100 °C (212 °F), and used to fry foods. Oils for this purpose must have a high flash point. Such oils include both the major cooking oils – soybean, rapeseed, canola, sunflower, safflower, peanut, cottonseed, etc. – and tropical oils, such as coconut, palm, and rice bran. The latter are particularly valued in Asian cultures for high-temperature cooking, because of their unusually high flash points.

Industrial[edit]

Vegetable oils are used as an ingredient or component in many manufactured products.

Many vegetable oils are used to make soaps, skin products, candles, perfumes and other personal care and cosmetic products. Some oils are particularly suitable as drying oils, and are used in making paints and other wood treatment products. They are used in alkyd resin production. Dammar oil (a mixture of linseed oil and dammar resin), for example, is used almost exclusively in treating the hulls of wooden boats. Vegetable oils are increasingly being used in the electrical industry as insulators as vegetable oils are not toxic to the environment, biodegradable if spilled and have high flash and fire points. However, vegetable oils are less stable chemically, so they are generally used in systems where they are not exposed to oxygen, and they are more expensive than crude oil distillate. Synthetic tetraesters, which are similar to vegetable oils but with four fatty acid chains compared to the normal three found in a natural ester, are manufactured by Fischer esterification. Tetraesters generally have high stability to oxidation and have found use as engine lubricants. Vegetable oil is being used to produce biodegradable hydraulic fluid^[8] and lubricant.^[9]

One limiting factor in industrial uses of vegetable oils is that all such oils are susceptible to becoming rancid. Oils that are more stable, such as ben oil or mineral oil, are thus preferred for industrial uses. Castor oil has numerous industrial uses, owing to the presence of hydroxyl group on the fatty acid. Castor oil is a precursor to Nylon 11. Castor oil may also be reacted with epichlorohydrin to make a glycidyl ether which is used as a diluent and flexibilizer with epoxy resins.

Pet food additive[edit]

Vegetable oil is used in the production of some pet foods. AAFCO^[10] defines vegetable oil in this context as the product of vegetable origin obtained by extracting the oil from seeds or fruits which are processed for edible purposes.

Fuel[edit]

Vegetable oils are also used to make biodiesel, which can be used like conventional diesel. Some vegetable oil blends are used in unmodified vehicles but straight vegetable oil, also known as pure plant oil, needs specially prepared vehicles which have a method of heating the oil to reduce its viscosity. The use of vegetable oils as alternative energy is growing^{[citation needed]} and the availability of biodiesel around the world is increasing.^{[citation needed]}

The NNFCC estimates that the total net greenhouse gas savings when using vegetable oils in place of fossil fuel-based alternatives for fuel production, range from 18 to 100%.^[11]

Production[edit]

The production process of vegetable oil involves the removal of oil from plant components, typically seeds. This can be done via mechanical extraction using an oil mill or chemical extraction using a solvent. The extracted oil can then be purified and, if required, refined or chemically altered.

[edit]

Oils can be removed via mechanical extraction, termed «crushing» or «pressing.» This method is typically used to produce the more traditional oils (e.g., olive, coconut etc.), and it is preferred by most health-food customers in the United States and in Europe.^{[citation needed]} There are several different types of mechanical extraction.^[12] Expeller pressing extraction is common, though the screw press, ram press, and ghani (powered mortar and pestle) are also used. Oilseed presses are commonly used in developing countries, among people for whom other extraction methods would be prohibitively expensive; the ghani is primarily used in India.^[13] The amount of oil extracted using these methods varies widely, as shown in the following table for extracting mowrah butter in India:^[14]

Method	Percentage extracted
Ghani[15]	20–30%
Expellers	34–37%
Solvent	40–43%

[edit]

The processing of vegetable oil in commercial applications is commonly done by chemical extraction, using solvent extracts, which produces higher yields and is quicker and less expensive. The most common solvent is petroleum-derived hexane. This technique is used for most of the «newer» industrial oils such as soybean and corn oils. After extraction, the solvent is evaporated out by heating the mixture to about 300 °F (149 °C).^[16]

Supercritical carbon dioxide can be used as a non-toxic alternative to other solvents.^[17]

Hydrogenation[edit]

Unsaturated vegetable oils can be transformed through partial or complete hydrogenation into oils of higher melting point, some of which, such as vegetable shortening, will remain solid at room temperature.

Hydrogenating vegetable oil is done by raising a blend of vegetable oil and a metal catalyst, typically nickel, in near-vacuum to very high temperatures, and introducing hydrogen. This causes the carbon atoms of the oil to break double-bonds with other carbons. Each carbon atom becomes single-bonded to an individual hydrogen atom, and the double bond between carbons can no longer exist. A fully hydrogenated oil, also called a saturated fat, has had all of its double bonds converted into single bonds. If a polyunsaturated oil is left incompletely-hydrogenated (not all of the double bonds are reduced to single bonds), then it is a «partially hydrogenated oil» (PHO). An oil may be hydrogenated to increase resistance to rancidity (oxidation) or to change its physical characteristics. As the degree of saturation is raised by full or partial hydrogenation, the oil’s viscosity and melting point increase.

While full hydrogenation produces largely saturated fatty acids, partial hydrogenation results in the transformation of unsaturated cis fatty acids to unsaturated trans fatty acids in the oil mixture due to the heat used in hydrogenation. Partially hydrogenated oils and their trans fats have been linked to an increased risk of mortality from coronary heart disease,^[18] among other increased health risks. These concerns have led to regulations mandating the removal of partially hydrogenated oils from food.^[19]

Deodorization[edit]

In the processing of edible oils, the oil is heated under vacuum to near the smoke point or to about 450 °F (232 °C),^[20] and water is introduced at the bottom of the oil. The water immediately is converted to steam, which bubbles through the oil, carrying with it any chemicals which are water-soluble. The steam sparging removes impurities that can impart unwanted flavors and odors to the oil. Deodorization is key to the manufacture of vegetable oils. Nearly all soybean, corn, and canola oils found on supermarket shelves go through a deodorization stage that removes trace amounts of odors and flavors, and lightens the color of the oil. However, the process commonly results in higher levels of trans fatty acids and distillation of the oil’s natural compounds.^[21][22][23]

Occupational exposure[edit]

People can breathe in vegetable oil mist in the workplace. The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit (permissible exposure limit) for vegetable oil mist exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set a recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m³ total exposure and 5 mg/m³ respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.^[24]

Yield[edit]

Typical productivity of some oil crops, measured in tons (t) of oil produced per hectare (ha) of land per year (yr). Oil palm is by far the highest yielding crop, capable of producing about 4 tons of palm oil per hectare per year.

Crop	Yield (t/ha/yr)
Palm oil [25]	4.0
Coconut oil [26]	1.4
Canola oil [27]	1.4
Soybean oil [27]	0.6
Sunflower oil [26]	0.6

Particular oils[edit]

The following triglyceride vegetable oils account for almost all worldwide production, by volume. All are used as both cooking oils and as SVO or to make biodiesel. According to the USDA, the total world consumption of major vegetable oils in 2007/08 was:^[28]

Oil source	World consumption (million metric tons)	Notes
Palm	41.31	The most widely produced tropical oil, also used to make biofuel
Soybean	41.28	One of the most widely consumed cooking oils
Rapeseed	18.24	One of the most widely used cooking oils, also used as fuel. Canola is a variety (cultivar) of rapeseed.
Sunflower seed	9.91	A common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel
Peanut	4.82	Mild-flavored cooking oil
Cottonseed	4.99	A major food oil, often used in industrial food processing
Palm kernel	4.85	From the seed of the African palm tree
Coconut	3.48	Used in cooking, cosmetics and soaps
Olive	2.84	Used in cooking, cosmetics, soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps

Note that these figures include industrial and animal feed use. The majority of European rapeseed oil production is used to produce biodiesel, or used directly as fuel in diesel cars which may require modification to heat the oil to reduce its higher viscosity.

Other significant oils include:

• Corn oil, one of the most common cooking oils, is used for cooking oil, salad dressing, margarine, mayonnaise, prepared goods like spaghetti sauce and baking mixes, and to fry prepared foods like potato chips and French fries.
• Grape seed oil, used in cooking and cosmetics
• Hazelnut oil and other nut oils
• Linseed oil, from flax seeds
• Rice bran oil, from rice grains
• Safflower oil, a flavorless and colorless cooking oil
• Sesame oil, used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India
• Açaí palm oil, used in culinary and cosmetics
• Jambú oil, is extracted from the flowers, leaves and stem from jambu (Acmella oleracea), contains spilanthol
• Graviola oil, derived from Annona muricata
• Tucumã oil, from Astrocaryum aculeatum is used to manufacture soap.
• Brazil nut oil, culinary and cosmetics use
• Carapa oil, pharmaceutical use and anti-mosquito candle
• Buriti oil, from Mauritia flexuosa, used in cosmetics (skin and hair care)
• Passion fruit oil, derived from Passiflora edulis, has varied applications in cosmetics manufacturing and for uses as a human or animal food.
• Pracaxi oil, obtained from Pentaclethra macroloba, cosmetics use
• Solarium oil, derived from chloroplasts, various applications in cooking

Composition of fats[edit]

Properties of vegetable oils^[29][30]

The nutritional values are expressed as percent (%) by mass of total fat.
Type	Processing treatment[31]	Saturated fatty acids	Monounsaturated fatty acids	Polyunsaturated fatty acids	Smoke point
Total[29]	Oleic acid (ω-9)	Total[29]	α-Linolenic acid (ω-3)	Linoleic acid (ω-6)	ω-6:3 ratio
Avocado[32]		11.6	70.6	52–66[33]	13.5	1	12.5	12.5:1	250 °C (482 °F)[34]
Brazil nut[35]		24.8	32.7	31.3	42.0	0.1	41.9	419:1	208 °C (406 °F)[36]
Canola[37]		7.4	63.3	61.8	28.1	9.1	18.6	2:1	238 °C (460 °F)[36]
Coconut[38]		82.5	6.3	6	1.7				175 °C (347 °F)[36]
Corn[39]		12.9	27.6	27.3	54.7	1	58	58:1	232 °C (450 °F)[40]
Cottonseed[41]		25.9	17.8	19	51.9	1	54	54:1	216 °C (420 °F)[40]
Cottonseed[42]	hydrogenated	93.6	1.5		0.6	0.2	0.3	1.5:1
Flaxseed/linseed[43]		9.0	18.4	18	67.8	53	13	0.2:1	107 °C (225 °F)
Grape seed		10.5	14.3	14.3	74.7	–	74.7	very high	216 °C (421 °F)[44]
Hemp seed[45]		7.0	9.0	9.0	82.0	22.0	54.0	2.5:1	166 °C (330 °F)[46]
Olive[47]		13.8	73.0	71.3	10.5	0.7	9.8	14:1	193 °C (380 °F)[36]
Palm[48]		49.3	37.0	40	9.3	0.2	9.1	45.5:1	235 °C (455 °F)
Palm[49]	hydrogenated	88.2	5.7		0
Peanut[50]		16.2	57.1	55.4	19.9	0.318	19.6	61.6:1	232 °C (450 °F)[40]
Rice bran oil		25	38.4	38.4	36.6	2.2	34.4[51]	15.6	232 °C (450 °F)[52]
High-oleic safflower oil[53]		7.5	75.2	75.2	12.8	0	12.8	very high	212 °C (414 °F)[36]
Sesame[54]		14.2	39.7	39.3	41.7	0.3	41.3	138:1
Soybean[55]		15.6	22.8	22.6	57.7	7	51	7.3:1	238 °C (460 °F)[40]
Soybean[56]	partially hydrogenated	14.9	43.0	42.5	37.6	2.6	34.9	13.4:1
Walnut oil[57]	unrefined	9.1	22.8	22.2	63.3	10.4	52.9	5:1	160 °C (320 °F)[58]
Sunflower[59]		8.99	63.4	62.9	20.7	0.16	20.5	128:1	227 °C (440 °F)[40]

Seed oil[edit]

Seed oils are vegetable oils obtained from the seed (endosperm) of some plants, rather than the fruit (pericarp). Most vegetable oils are seed oils. Examples are sunflower, corn, and sesame oils.

Pre-pressing[edit]

Extracting the oils first by expeller or cold pressing methods, then solvent expelling the rest of the oils from the leftover matter. This is a method used by larger capacity oil mills. As the energy consumption of the mechanical press increases as more oil is released, it is more efficient to extract the rest of the oil (past around 60%) by solvent extraction.^[60]

History[edit]

Such oils have been part of human culture for millennia.^[4] Oils such as poppy seed, rapeseed, linseed, almond oil, sesame seed, safflower, and cottonseed were variously used since at least the Bronze Age in the Middle East.^[4] Vegetable oils have been used for lighting fuel, cooking, medicine and lubrication.
Palm oil has long been recognized in West and Central African countries, and European merchants trading with West Africa occasionally purchased palm oil for use as a cooking oil in Europe and it became highly sought-after commodity by British traders for use as an industrial lubricant for machinery during Britain’s Industrial Revolution.^[61] Palm oil formed the basis of soap products, such as Lever Brothers’ (now Unilever) «Sunlight», and
B. J. Johnson Company’s (now Colgate-Palmolive) «Palmolive»,^[62] and by around 1870, palm oil constituted the primary export of some West African countries.^[63]

In 1780 Carl Wilhelm Scheele demonstrated that fats were derived from glycerol. Thirty years later Michel Eugène Chevreul deduced that these fats were esters of fatty acids and glycerol. Wilhelm Normann, a German chemist introduced the hydrogenation of liquid fats in 1901, creating what later became known as trans fats, leading to the development of the global production of margarine and vegetable shortening.

In the USA cottonseed oil was developed, and marketed by Procter & Gamble as a creamed shortening – Crisco – as early as 1911. Ginning mills were happy to have someone haul away the cotton seeds. The extracted oil was refined and partially hydrogenated to give a solid at room temperature and thus mimic natural lard, and canned under nitrogen gas. Compared to the rendered lard Procter & Gamble was already selling to consumers, Crisco was cheaper, easier to stir into a recipe, and could be stored at room temperature for two years without turning rancid.

Soybeans are protein-rich, and the medium viscosity oil rendered from them was high in polyunsaturates. Henry Ford established a soybean research laboratory, developed soybean plastics and a soy-based synthetic wool, and built a car «almost entirely» out of soybeans.^[64] Roger Drackett had a successful new product with Windex, but he invested heavily in soybean research, seeing it as a smart investment.^[65] By the 1950s and 1960s, soybean oil had become the most popular vegetable oil in the US; today it is second only to palm oil. In 2018–2019, world production was at 57.4 MT with the leading producers including China (16.6 MT), US (10.9 MT), Argentina (8.4 MT), Brazil (8.2 MT), and EU (3.2 MT).^[66]

The early 20th century also saw the start of the use of vegetable oil as a fuel in diesel engines and in heating oil burners. Rudolf Diesel designed his engine to run on vegetable oil. The idea, he hoped, would make his engines more attractive to farmers having a source of fuel readily available. Diesel’s first engine ran on its own power for the first time in Augsburg, Germany, on 10 August 1893 on nothing but peanut oil. In remembrance of this event, 10 August has been declared «International Biodiesel Day».^[67] The first patent on Biodiesel was granted in 1937.^[68] Periodic petroleum shortages spurred research into vegetable oil as a diesel substitute during the 1930s and 1940s, and again in the 1970s and early 1980s when straight vegetable oil enjoyed its highest level of scientific interest. The 1970s also saw the formation of the first commercial enterprise to allow consumers to run straight vegetable oil in their vehicles. However, biodiesel, produced from oils or fats using transesterification is more widely used. It is Led by Brazil, many countries built biodiesel plants during the 1990s, and it is now widely available for use in motor vehicles, and is the most common biofuel in Europe today. In France, biodiesel is incorporated at a rate of 8% in the fuel used by all French diesel vehicles.^[69]

In the mid-1970s, Canadian researchers developed a low-erucic-acid rapeseed cultivar. Because the word «rape» was not considered optimal for marketing, they coined the name «canola» (from «Canada Oil low acid»). The U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved use of the canola name in January 1985,^[70] and U.S. farmers started planting large areas that spring. Canola oil is lower in saturated fats, and higher in monounsaturates. Canola is very thin (unlike corn oil) and flavorless (unlike olive oil), so it largely succeeds by displacing soy oil, just as soy oil largely succeeded by displacing cottonseed oil.

Used oil[edit]

A large quantity of used vegetable oil is produced and recycled, mainly from industrial deep fryers in potato processing plants, snack food factories and fast food restaurants.

Recycled oil has numerous uses, including use as a direct fuel, as well as in the production of biodiesel, livestock feed, pet food, soap, detergent, cosmetics, and industrial chemicals.

Since 2002, an increasing number of European Union countries have prohibited the inclusion of recycled vegetable oil from catering in animal feed. Used cooking oils from food manufacturing, however, as well as fresh or unused cooking oil, continue to be used in their animal feed.^[71]

Shelf life[edit]

Due to their susceptibility to oxidation from the exposure to oxygen, heat and light, resulting in the formation of oxidation products, such as peroxides and hydroperoxides, plant oils rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids have a limited shelf-life.^[72][73]

Product labeling[edit]

In Canada, palm oil is one of five vegetable oils, along with palm kernel oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, and cocoa butter, which must be specifically named in the list of ingredients for a food product.^[74] Also, oils in Canadian food products which have been modified or hydrogenated must contain the word «modified» or «hydrogenated» when listed as an ingredient.^[75] A mix of oils other than the aforementioned exceptions may simply be listed as «vegetable oil» in Canada; however, if the food product is a cooking oil, salad oil or table oil, the type of oil must be specified and listing «vegetable oil» as an ingredient is not acceptable.^[74]

From December 2014, all food products produced in the European Union were legally required to indicate the specific vegetable oil used in their manufacture, following the introduction of the Food Information to Consumers Regulation.^[76]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

Further reading[edit]

• Gupta, Monoj K. (2007). Practical guide for vegetable oil processing. AOCS Press, Urbana, Illinois. ISBN 978-1-893997-90-5.
• Jee, Michael, ed. (2002). Oils and Fats Authentication. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford, England. ISBN 1-84127-330-9.
• Salunkhe, D.K., Chavan, J.K., Adsule, R.N. and Kadam, S.S. (1992). World Oilseeds – Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. ISBN 0-442-00112-6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)