Как пишется психоактивные вещества

Психоактивные вещества́ (ПАВ) — вещества (или смеси нескольких веществ), влияющие на функции центральной нервной системы и приводящие к изменению психического состояния^[1], вплоть до изменённого состояния сознания^[2]. Используются в медицине и в рекреационных целях.

Психоактивные вещества, влияющие на высшие психические функции и используемые при лечении психических расстройств, называют психофармакологическими веществами.

• Термин психотропные вещества́, или психотро́пы (от др.-греч.  — «поворотный, изменяющий»), в самом широком смысле обозначает то же, что и термин «психоактивные вещества», под которым понимаются как психофармакологические средства, используемые в психиатрии, так и наркотические вещества, например психостимуляторы, галлюциногены, опиоиды^[3].

В контексте международного контроля над оборотом наркотических средств термин «психотропное» применяется к веществам, перечисленным в Международной конвенции о психотропных веществах 1971 года^[3].

• Нейротро́пные сре́дства — обширная группа лекарственных средств, оказывающих качественное воздействие на центральную и периферическую нервную систему. Они могут угнетать или стимулировать передачу нервного возбуждения, понижать или повышать чувствительность нервных окончаний в периферических нервах, воздействовать на разные типы рецепторов, синапсов.

Виды психоактивных веществ[править | править код]

По происхождению психоактивные вещества делятся на:

• растительные;
• полусинтетические (синтезируемые на основе растительного сырья);
• синтетические.

Классификация психоактивных веществ может проводиться по их химическому строению, по эффекту их воздействия на нервную систему человека, а также по механизму воздействия на организм. Существуют и комбинированные классификации.

Некоторые психоактивные вещества растительного происхождения[править | править код]

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Запрещенные в Российской Федерации

Разрешенные в Российской Федерации

Тетрагидроканнабинол (из конопли) Диметилтриптамин (из растений Mimosa tenuiflora, Psychotria viridis и др.) Катинон (из листьев ката); Мескалин (из кактусов Lophophora williamsii, Echinopsis pachanoi); Псилоцибин (из грибов вида Psilocybe cubensis, Psilocybe semilanceata и др.) Сальвинорин-А (из шалфея предсказателей) Разрешенные для использования в медицинских целях в РФ Кодеин (из мака) Кокаин (из коки) Морфин (из мака) Эфедрин (из хвойника) Атропин (из дурмана, красавки)

Алкоголь Кофеин[4][5] (из листьев чая, листьев мате, гуараны, зёрен кофе, орехов колы) Миристицин (из мускатного ореха) Мусцимол и иботеновая кислота (из мухоморов) Никотин (в махорке, табаке) Теофиллин (в чае, мате, какао) Туйон (в полыни, туе, кипарисе, можжевельнике) Эвгенол (из гвоздики, корицы)

Некоторые растения, вещества и препараты, вызывающие психотропные эффекты, имеют различный юридический статус в разных странах, например алкоголь, кат, конопля и др.

По фармакологическим свойствам[править | править код]

(наиболее известные вещества)

Лекарственные средства для лечения заболеваний нервной системы

Комбинированные классификации психоактивных веществ[править | править код]

Классификации по силе воздействия на психику[править | править код]

Чем меньшее количество вещества необходимо принять для того, чтобы полностью ощутить его действие, тем более сильным, более психоактивным оно является. Для ЛСД, например, активная доза равна 100 микрограммам, в то время как для этанола доза измеряется десятками граммов. Таким образом, психоактивность ЛСД в десятки тысяч раз выше, чем психоактивность этанола. В зависимости от особенностей метаболизма индивида вещество может почти не действовать или делать это гораздо сильнее (гиперчувствительность). Принято измерять дозу в граммах вещества на килограмм веса.

Деление по силе зависимости неоднозначно. Лидерами по данному показателю среди веществ считаются героин, кокаин и никотин, а также алкоголь. Из классов веществ выделяют опиаты и стимуляторы как вызывающие сильную зависимость. Сильную зависимость могут также вызывать барбитураты.

Кофе и чай, содержащие пурины, оказывают слабый стимулирующий эффект^[4]. Под «лёгкими наркотиками» обычно подразумевают вещества с низкой аддиктивностью и отсутствием нейротоксичности, такие как ЛСД, марихуана и некоторые другие.

Механизм действия[править | править код]

Психоактивные вещества оказывают разнообразное влияние на ЦНС на разных уровнях её функционирования: молекулярном, синаптическом, клеточном, системном. В целом любое такое влияние сопровождается изменением обмена веществ на том уровне, на котором происходит это влияние.

Психоактивные вещества могут попадать в организм самыми разными путями. Распространённые способы:

• перорально, при глотании — через пищеварительную систему,
• парентерально — инъекционно внутримышечно или внутривенно,
• через слизистые, в том числе интраназально — через носоглотку, путём вдыхания измельчённого вещества,
• через лёгкие — путём курения или вдыхания паров.

Психоактивное вещество проходит сложный путь в организме, и в зависимости от строения, способа использования, состояния выводящих систем, может перерабатываться организмом в производные с разной активностью. Попадая в кровь, проходя через гематоэнцефалический барьер, вещество воздействует на передачу нейронами нервных импульсов. Воздействуя на баланс нейромедиаторов разного влияния (активирующие и тормозные) в мозге, препараты изменяют таким образом работу всей нервной системы.

Толерантность[править | править код]

Чем выше толерантность к употребляемому веществу, тем большие дозы необходимы для получения ожидаемого эффекта. Обычно толерантность вырабатывается при приёме веществ, активность которых со временем снижается. Толерантность быстро формируется к кофеину и опиатам. Чем чаще и в большем количестве употребляются вещества — тем быстрее возрастает толерантность.

Своеобразной толерантностью обладают классические психоделики (ЛСД, псилоцибин, мескалин) — при приёме ЛСД толерантность возрастает очень быстро, буквально через несколько часов после начала действия, но полностью исчезает приблизительно за неделю. Более того, для психоделиков характерна кросстолерантность.

Отмечают, что у некоторых веществ, например, у сальвинорина, природного диссоциатива, содержащегося в мексиканском шалфее Salvia divinorum, может отмечаться обратная толерантность, то есть при длительном употреблении для достижения одного и того же эффекта требуется меньшее количество вещества.

Формирование зависимости и синдрома отмены[править | править код]

Обычно формирование зависимости связывают со злоупотреблением ПАВ, его систематическим применением. Действие веществ на человека очень индивидуально, но среди распространённых веществ быстрее всего зависимость формируется при приёме героина, никотина. Также некоторые психостимуляторы, например кокаин и амфетамин, вызывают психическую (но не физическую) зависимость.

Физическая зависимость формируется, когда организм привыкает к регулярному поступлению участвующих в метаболизме веществ извне и снижает их эндогенную выработку. При прекращении поступления вещества в организм в нём возникает обусловленная физиологическими процессами потребность в этом веществе. Физическая зависимость от психической отличается тем, что в результате замещения собственных нейромедиаторов экзогенными снижается их продукция в организме^[12] (либо количество рецепторов к ним).

Механизм формирования зависимости может быть связан как с самим веществом, так и с его метаболитами. Например героин путём удаления ацетил групп метаболизируется в морфин, воздействующий на опиоидные рецепторы. Алкоголь воздействует на нервную систему, напрямую соединяясь с рецепторами ГАМК^[13]. Никотин и амфетамин стимулируют выброс эндогенного адреналина^{[источник не указан 3220 дней]}.

Психическая зависимость связывается в основном с приятными ощущениями от приёма веществ, что стимулирует человека к повторению опыта их употребления. Зависимость может формироваться и при употреблении веществ, не вызывающих приятных ощущений. Например NMDA-антагонисты, которые вызывают распад сознания (в трип-репортах сообщается даже о переживаниях смерти под их действием); переживания и визуальные эффекты от психоделиков часто не могут быть описаны как приятные, тем не менее, при частом употреблении эти вещества могут вызывать разрыв с реальностью, связанный с эскапистским характером психоделического опыта и формирование психической зависимости.

Психоактивные вещества и соответствующие мишени[править | править код]

См. также[править | править код]

Примечания[править | править код]

Литература[править | править код]

• «Лекарственные средства» М. Д. Машковского
• «ЛСД — мой трудный ребёнок», Хоффман А.
• PiHKAL: «Фенэтиламины, которые я знал и любил», Шульгин А.
• TiHKAL: «Триптамины, которые я знал и любил», Шульгин А.
• От ЛСД к виртуальной реальности. Тимоти Лири
• Дмитриева Т. Б., Игонин А. Л., Клименко Т. Б., Пищикова Л. Е., Кулагина Н. Е., Сравнительная характеристика основных групп психоактивных веществ // Наркология № 5, 2002

Ссылки[править | править код]

• «Психоактивные вещества» // ВОЗ (рус.)
• Lycaeum — База психоактивных веществ и растений (англ.)
• Центр исследований психоактивных веществ

A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance that changes functions of the nervous system, and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior.^[1]

These substances may be used medically, recreationally, for spiritual reasons — for example, to alter one’s consciousness (as with entheogens for ritual, spiritual or shamanic purposes), or for research.

Some categories of psychoactive drugs may be prescribed by physicians^[2] and other healthcare practitioners because of their therapeutic value.

Examples of medication categories that may contain potentially beneficial psychoactive drugs include, but are not limited to:

1. Anesthetics
2. Analgesics
3. Anticonvulsants
4. Anti-Parkinson’s medications
5. Medications used to treat Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Antidepressants, Anxiolytics, Antipsychotics and Stimulant Medications.)

Some psychoactive substances may be used in detoxification and rehabilitation programs for people who may have become dependent upon, or addicted to, other mind or mood altering substances. Drug rehabilitation attempts to reduce addiction through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, and sometimes — psychoactive substances.

Psychoactive substances often bring various changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g., euphoria or a sense of relaxation) or advantageous in an objectively observable or measurable way (e.g. increased alertness). Substances which are rewarding, and thus positively reinforcing, have the potential to induce a state of addiction – compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce physical or psychological dependence, or both, associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states respectively.

Psychoactive drug misuse, dependence, and addiction have resulted in legal measures and moral debate. Governmental controls on manufacture, supply, and prescription attempt to reduce problematic medical drug use. Ethical concerns have also been raised about over-use of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by manufacturers. Popular campaigns to decriminalize^[3] or legalize the recreational use of certain drugs (e.g. cannabis) are also ongoing.

History[edit]

Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances, mostly plants, dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.^[6] The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society.^[7][8]

Medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug usage. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter one’s consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger, or sexual desire.^[9] Supporters of this belief contend that the history of drug use, and even children’s desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicate that the drive to alter one’s state of mind is universal.^[10]

One of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context, was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870) in his book The Hasheesh Eater (1857):

[D]rugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into a higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving…That of which we speak is something much higher, namely the knowledge of the possibility of the soul to enter into a lighter being, and to catch a glimpse of deeper insights and more magnificent visions of the beauty, truth, and the divine than we are normally able to spy through the cracks in our prison cell. But there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that research has thus far written it, may include only opium, hashish, and in rarer cases alcohol, which has enlightening effects only upon very particular characters.^[11]

During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them, and making their use, supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials, and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:

[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal drugs. By fighting a war on drugs the government has increased the problems of society and made them far worse. A system of regulation rather than prohibition is a less harmful, more ethical and a more effective public policy.^{[12][failed verification]}

In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of the Portuguese drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.^[13]

Purposes[edit]

Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes, and these uses vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses, some may have shamanic purposes, and others are used medicinally. Other examples include social drinking, nootropic, or sleep aids. Caffeine is the world’s most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many others, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.^[14]

Psychoactive drugs are divided into different groups according to their pharmacological effects. Commonly used psychoactive drugs and groups are listed below:

• Anxiolytics. Used to reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic.

Example: benzodiazepines such as Xanax and Valium, barbiturates

• Empathogen–entactogens

Example: MDMA (ecstasy), MDA, 6-APB, AMT

• Stimulants (colloquially referred to as «uppers»). This category comprises substances that increase wakefulness and productivity, stimulate the mind, and may cause euphoria, but do not affect vision.

Examples: amphetamine, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine, modafinil

• Depressants (colloquially referred to as «downers»), including sedatives, hypnotics, and opioids. This category includes all of the calmative, sleep-inducing, anesthetizing substances, which sometimes induce perceptual changes, such as dream images, and often evoke feelings of euphoria.

Examples: Ethanol (alcohol), opioids such as morphine, fentanyl, and codeine, cannabis, barbiturates, benzodiazepines.

• Hallucinogens, including psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. This category encompasses all substances that produce distinct alterations in perception, sensation of space and time, and emotional states^[15]

Examples: psilocybin, LSD, DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine)/ayahuasca, mescaline, Salvia divinorum, Nitrous oxide, and Scopolamine

Uses[edit]

Anesthesia[edit]

General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, allowing the person to undergo medical procedures like surgery, without the feelings of physical pain or emotional trauma.^[16] To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDA systems. For example, propofol is a GABA agonist,^[17] and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist.^[18]

Pain management[edit]

Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine.^[19] NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.

Mental disorders[edit]

Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders, or to aid in overcoming challenging behavior.^[20] There are six major classes of psychiatric medications:

• Antidepressants treat disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder.^[21]
• Stimulants, used to treat disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy, and for weight reduction.
• Antipsychotics, used to treat psychotic symptoms, such as those associated with schizophrenia or severe mania, or as adjuncts to relieve clinical depression.
• Mood stabilizers, used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder.
• Anxiolytics, used to treat anxiety disorders.
• Depressants, used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics, depending upon dosage.

In addition, several psychoactive substances are currently employed to treat various addictions. These include acamprosate or naltrexone in the treatment of alcoholism, or methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in the case of opioid addiction.^[22]

Exposure to psychoactive drugs can cause changes to the brain that counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of evidence that the relapse rate of mental disorders negatively corresponds with the length of properly followed treatment regimens (that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo.^[23]

Recreation[edit]

Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, nicotine and cannabis.^[24] Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:

• Stimulants, which activate the central nervous system. These are used recreationally for their euphoric effects.
• Hallucinogens (psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants), which induce perceptual and cognitive alterations.
• Hypnotics, which depress the central nervous system.
• Opioid analgesics, which also depress the central nervous system. These are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects.
• Inhalants, in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor because of their stupefying effects. Many inhalants also fall into the above categories (such as nitrous oxide which is also an analgesic).

In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties.^[25] For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.^[26]

Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom.^[27] In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional, and causing more harm than is prevented.^[28]

Some people who take psychoactive drugs experience drug or substance induced psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the pooled proportion of transition from substance-induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 25% (95% CI 18%–35%), compared with 36% (95% CI 30%–43%) for brief, atypical and not otherwise specified psychoses.^[29] Type of substance was the primary predictor of transition from drug-induced psychosis to schizophrenia, with highest rates associated with cannabis (6 studies, 34%, CI 25%–46%), hallucinogens (3 studies, 26%, CI 14%–43%) and amphetamines (5 studies, 22%, CI 14%–34%). Lower rates were reported for opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%) induced psychoses. Transition rates were slightly lower in older cohorts but were not affected by sex, country of the study, hospital or community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or duration of follow-up.^[29]

Ritual and spiritual[edit]

Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used peyote cacti containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years.^[30] The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.^[31]

The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new spiritual and intention-based movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote. However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one’s personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.^[32]

Military[edit]

Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons.

Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its «war on terror». In July 2012 Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing
practice.^[33][34] Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives release.^[35][36]
In May 2003 recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.^{[citation needed]}

Additionally, militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs to improve performance of soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengthening wakefulness and concentration, suppressing fear, reducing empathy, and improving reflexes and memory-recall among other things.^[37][38]

The first documented case of a soldier overdosing on methamphetamine during combat, was the Finnish corporal Aimo Koivunen, a soldier who fought in the Winter War and the Continuation War.^[39][40]

Route of administration[edit]

Psychoactive drugs are administered via oral ingestion as a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; via injection by subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous route; via rectum by suppository and enema; and via inhalation by smoking, vaporizing, and snorting. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.^[41]

The psychiatric drugs fluoxetine, quetiapine, and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablet or capsule form. Alcohol and caffeine are ingested in beverage form; nicotine and cannabis are smoked or vaporized; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and crystalline drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine are usually inhaled or snorted.

Determinants of effects[edit]

The theory of dosage, set, and setting is a useful model in dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary, based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleagues Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) in the 1960s.^[42]

Dosage

The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus who said, «Dose makes the poison.» Some compounds are beneficial or pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or evoke discomfort in higher doses.

Set

The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person, including their expectations, wishes, fears, and sensitivity to the drug. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which have the ability to make conscious experiences out of the unconscious. In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview, health and genetic characteristics that all the members of the culture share.

Setting

The third aspect is setting, which pertains to the surroundings, the place, and the time in which the experiences transpire.

This theory clearly states that the effects are equally the result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical influences. The model that Timothy Leary proposed applied to the psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactives.^[43]

Effects[edit]

Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person’s neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person’s mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuroreceptor in the brain.

Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing its reuptake from the synapses, or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the postsynaptic receptor. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.^[44]

Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also, neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction.^[45] Physical dependence on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to simply as depression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.

Affected neurotransmitter systems[edit]

The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. Many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.^[46]

Neurotransmitter/receptor	Classification	Examples
Acetylcholine	Cholinergics (acetylcholine receptor agonists)	arecoline, nicotine, piracetam
Muscarinic antagonists (acetylcholine receptor antagonists)	scopolamine, benzatropine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, trihexiphenidyl, doxylamine, atropine, quetiapine, olanzapine, most tricyclics
Nicotinic antagonists (acetylcholine receptor antagonists)	memantine, bupropion
Adenosine	Adenosine receptor antagonists[47]	caffeine, theobromine, theophylline
Dopamine	Dopamine reuptake inhibitors	cocaine, bupropion, methylphenidate, St John’s wort, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, and methamphetamine
Dopamine releasing agents	Cavendish bananas,[48] TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, and methamphetamine
Dopamine agonists	pramipexole, Ropinirole, L-DOPA (prodrug), memantine
Dopamine antagonists	haloperidol, droperidol, many antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine)
Dopamine partial agonists	LSD, aripiprazole
gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)	GABA reuptake inhibitors	tiagabine, St John’s wort, vigabatrin, deramciclane
GABAA receptor agonists	ethanol, niacin,[49] barbiturates, diazepam, clonazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, alprazolam and other benzodiazepines, zolpidem, eszopiclone, zaleplon and other nonbenzodiazepines, muscimol, phenibut
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
GABA receptor antagonists	thujone, bicuculline
GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulators
Norepinephrine	Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors	St John’s wort,[50] most non-SSRI antidepressants such as amoxapine, atomoxetine, bupropion, venlafaxine, quetiapine, the tricyclics, methylphenidate, SNRIs such as duloxetine, venlafaxine, cocaine, tramadol, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine.
Norepinephrine releasing agents	ephedrine, PPA, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine
Adrenergic agonists	clonidine, guanfacine, phenylephrine
Adrenergic antagonists	carvedilol, metoprolol, mianserin, prazosin, propranolol, trazodone, yohimbine, olanzapine
Serotonin	Serotonin receptor agonists	triptans (e.g. sumatriptan, eletriptan), psychedelics (e.g. lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, mescaline), ergolines (e.g. lisuride, bromocriptine)
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors	most antidepressants including St John’s wort, tricyclics such as imipramine, SSRIs (e.g. fluoxetine, sertraline, escitalopram), SNRIs (e.g. duloxetine, venlafaxine)
Serotonin releasing agents	fenfluramine, MDMA (ecstasy), tryptamine
Serotonin receptor antagonists	ritanserin, mirtazapine, mianserin, trazodone, cyproheptadine, memantine, atypical antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine)
AMPA receptor	AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulators	aniracetam, CX717, piracetam
AMPA receptor antagonists	kynurenic acid, NBQX, topiramate
Cannabinoid	Cannabinoid receptor agonists	JWH-018
Cannabinoid receptor partial agonists	Anandamide, THC, cannabidiol, cannabinol
Cannabinoid receptor inverse agonists	Rimonabant
Anandamide reuptake inhibitors	LY 2183240, VDM 11, AM 404
FAAH enzyme inhibitors	MAFP, URB597, N-Arachidonylglycine
NMDA receptor	NMDA receptor antagonists	ethanol, ketamine, deschloroketamine, 2-Fluorodeschloroketamine, PCP, DXM, Nitrous Oxide, memantine
GHB receptor	GHB receptor agonists	GHB, T-HCA
Sigma receptor	Sigma-1 receptor agonists	cocaine, DMT, DXM, fluvoxamine, ibogaine, opipramol, PCP, methamphetamine
Sigma-2 receptor agonists	methamphetamine
Opioid receptor	μ-opioid receptor agonists	Narcotic opioids (e.g. codeine, morphine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, oxycodone, oxymorphone, heroin, fentanyl)
μ-opioid receptor partial agonists	buprenorphine
μ-opioid receptor inverse agonists	naloxone
μ-opioid receptor antagonists	naltrexone
κ-opioid receptor agonists	salvinorin A, butorphanol, nalbuphine, pentazocine, ibogaine[51]
κ-opioid receptor antagonists	buprenorphine
Histamine receptor	H1 receptor antagonists	diphenhydramine, doxylamine, mirtazapine, mianserin, quetiapine, olanzapine, meclozine, most tricyclics
H3 receptor antagonists	pitolisant
Indirect histamine receptor agonists	modafinil[52]
Monoamine oxidase	Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)	phenelzine, iproniazid, tranylcypromine, selegiline, rasagiline, moclobemide, isocarboxazid, Linezolid, benmoxin, St John’s wort, coffee,[53] garlic[54]
Melatonin receptor	Melatonin receptor agonists	agomelatine, melatonin, ramelteon, tasimelteon
Imidazoline receptor	Imidazoline receptor agonists	apraclonidine, clonidine, moxonidine, rilmenidine
Orexin receptor	Inderict Orexin receptor agonists	modafinil[55]
Orexin receptor antagonists	SB-334,867, SB-408,124, TCS-OX2-29, suvorexant

Addiction and dependence[edit]

Addiction and dependence glossary[56][57][58][59]
addiction – a biopsychosocial disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including alcohol) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences addictive drug – psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug’s effect on brain reward systems dependence – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake) drug sensitization or reverse tolerance – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose drug withdrawal – symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use physical dependence – dependence that involves persistent physical–somatic withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and delirium tremens) psychological dependence – dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., dysphoria and anhedonia) reinforcing stimuli – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them rewarding stimuli – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach sensitization – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it substance use disorder – a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress tolerance – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
v t e

Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction or drug dependence. Dependence can be divided into two types: psychological dependence, by which a user experiences negative psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (e.g., depression) and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful physical withdrawal symptoms.^[61] Drugs that are both rewarding and reinforcing are addictive; these properties of a drug are mediated through activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, particularly the nucleus accumbens. Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, e.g., amphetamine, and not all drugs that produce physical dependence are addictive drugs, e.g., caffeine.

Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in drug rehabilitation, with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.^[62]

Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox. Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction, as is another opioid, buprenorphine. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics such as ibogaine to treat and even cure drug addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.^[63][64]

Legality[edit]

The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of recent history; the Second Opium War and Prohibition are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the United Nations. Signed by 73 nations including the United States, the USSR, Pakistan, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to recreational drugs by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs.^[65] All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.^[66]

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are over the counter and which are only available with a prescription.^[67] However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.^[68] Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age.^[69] Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments.^[70] Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the «hard» drugs, which are illegal in most countries.^[71][72][73]

In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics^[who?] believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients’ judgement and autonomy.^[74][75]

Effect on animals[edit]

A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use.^[76] Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.^[77]

Widely used psychoactive drugs[edit]

This is a list of commonly used drugs that contain psychoactive ingredients. Please note that the following lists contains legal and illegal drugs (based on the country’s laws).

• Alcohol
• Benzodiazepines
• Caffeine
• Cannabis
• Cocaine
• Heroin
• LSD
• Methamphetamine
• Ecstasy
• Nicotine
• Opioids
• Psilocybin mushrooms

See also[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence by the WHO

A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, psychoactive agent or psychotropic drug is a chemical substance that changes functions of the nervous system, and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness, cognition, or behavior.^[1]

These substances may be used medically, recreationally, for spiritual reasons — for example, to alter one’s consciousness (as with entheogens for ritual, spiritual or shamanic purposes), or for research.

Some categories of psychoactive drugs may be prescribed by physicians^[2] and other healthcare practitioners because of their therapeutic value.

Examples of medication categories that may contain potentially beneficial psychoactive drugs include, but are not limited to:

1. Anesthetics
2. Analgesics
3. Anticonvulsants
4. Anti-Parkinson’s medications
5. Medications used to treat Neuropsychiatric Disorders (Antidepressants, Anxiolytics, Antipsychotics and Stimulant Medications.)

Some psychoactive substances may be used in detoxification and rehabilitation programs for people who may have become dependent upon, or addicted to, other mind or mood altering substances. Drug rehabilitation attempts to reduce addiction through a combination of psychotherapy, support groups, and sometimes — psychoactive substances.

Psychoactive substances often bring various changes in consciousness and mood that the user may find rewarding and pleasant (e.g., euphoria or a sense of relaxation) or advantageous in an objectively observable or measurable way (e.g. increased alertness). Substances which are rewarding, and thus positively reinforcing, have the potential to induce a state of addiction – compulsive drug use despite negative consequences. In addition, sustained use of some substances may produce physical or psychological dependence, or both, associated with somatic or psychological-emotional withdrawal states respectively.

Psychoactive drug misuse, dependence, and addiction have resulted in legal measures and moral debate. Governmental controls on manufacture, supply, and prescription attempt to reduce problematic medical drug use. Ethical concerns have also been raised about over-use of these drugs clinically, and about their marketing by manufacturers. Popular campaigns to decriminalize^[3] or legalize the recreational use of certain drugs (e.g. cannabis) are also ongoing.

History[edit]

Psychoactive drug use can be traced to prehistory. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances, mostly plants, dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.^[6] The chewing of coca leaves, for example, dates back over 8,000 years ago in Peruvian society.^[7][8]

Medicinal use is one important facet of psychoactive drug usage. However, some have postulated that the urge to alter one’s consciousness is as primary as the drive to satiate thirst, hunger, or sexual desire.^[9] Supporters of this belief contend that the history of drug use, and even children’s desire for spinning, swinging, or sliding indicate that the drive to alter one’s state of mind is universal.^[10]

One of the first people to articulate this point of view, set aside from a medicinal context, was American author Fitz Hugh Ludlow (1836–1870) in his book The Hasheesh Eater (1857):

[D]rugs are able to bring humans into the neighborhood of divine experience and can thus carry us up from our personal fate and the everyday circumstances of our life into a higher form of reality. It is, however, necessary to understand precisely what is meant by the use of drugs. We do not mean the purely physical craving…That of which we speak is something much higher, namely the knowledge of the possibility of the soul to enter into a lighter being, and to catch a glimpse of deeper insights and more magnificent visions of the beauty, truth, and the divine than we are normally able to spy through the cracks in our prison cell. But there are not many drugs which have the power of stilling such craving. The entire catalog, at least to the extent that research has thus far written it, may include only opium, hashish, and in rarer cases alcohol, which has enlightening effects only upon very particular characters.^[11]

During the 20th century, many governments across the world initially responded to the use of recreational drugs by banning them, and making their use, supply, or trade a criminal offense. A notable example of this was Prohibition in the United States, where alcohol was made illegal for 13 years. However, many governments, government officials, and persons in law enforcement have concluded that illicit drug use cannot be sufficiently stopped through criminalization. Organizations such as Law Enforcement Against Prohibition (LEAP) have come to such a conclusion, believing:

[T]he existing drug policies have failed in their intended goals of addressing the problems of crime, drug abuse, addiction, juvenile drug use, stopping the flow of illegal drugs into this country and the internal sale and use of illegal drugs. By fighting a war on drugs the government has increased the problems of society and made them far worse. A system of regulation rather than prohibition is a less harmful, more ethical and a more effective public policy.^{[12][failed verification]}

In some countries, there has been a move toward harm reduction by health services, where the use of illicit drugs is neither condoned nor promoted, but services and support are provided to ensure users have adequate factual information readily available, and that the negative effects of their use be minimized. Such is the case of the Portuguese drug policy of decriminalization, which achieved its primary goal of reducing the adverse health effects of drug abuse.^[13]

Purposes[edit]

Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes, and these uses vary widely between cultures. Some substances may have controlled or illegal uses, some may have shamanic purposes, and others are used medicinally. Other examples include social drinking, nootropic, or sleep aids. Caffeine is the world’s most widely consumed psychoactive substance, but unlike many others, it is legal and unregulated in nearly all jurisdictions. In North America, 90% of adults consume caffeine daily.^[14]

Psychoactive drugs are divided into different groups according to their pharmacological effects. Commonly used psychoactive drugs and groups are listed below:

• Anxiolytics. Used to reduce symptoms of anxiety and panic.

Example: benzodiazepines such as Xanax and Valium, barbiturates

• Empathogen–entactogens

Example: MDMA (ecstasy), MDA, 6-APB, AMT

• Stimulants (colloquially referred to as «uppers»). This category comprises substances that increase wakefulness and productivity, stimulate the mind, and may cause euphoria, but do not affect vision.

Examples: amphetamine, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine, modafinil

• Depressants (colloquially referred to as «downers»), including sedatives, hypnotics, and opioids. This category includes all of the calmative, sleep-inducing, anesthetizing substances, which sometimes induce perceptual changes, such as dream images, and often evoke feelings of euphoria.

Examples: Ethanol (alcohol), opioids such as morphine, fentanyl, and codeine, cannabis, barbiturates, benzodiazepines.

• Hallucinogens, including psychedelics, dissociatives, and deliriants. This category encompasses all substances that produce distinct alterations in perception, sensation of space and time, and emotional states^[15]

Examples: psilocybin, LSD, DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine)/ayahuasca, mescaline, Salvia divinorum, Nitrous oxide, and Scopolamine

Uses[edit]

Anesthesia[edit]

General anesthetics are a class of psychoactive drug used on people to block physical pain and other sensations. Most anesthetics induce unconsciousness, allowing the person to undergo medical procedures like surgery, without the feelings of physical pain or emotional trauma.^[16] To induce unconsciousness, anesthetics affect the GABA and NMDA systems. For example, propofol is a GABA agonist,^[17] and ketamine is an NMDA receptor antagonist.^[18]

Pain management[edit]

Psychoactive drugs are often prescribed to manage pain. The subjective experience of pain is primarily regulated by endogenous opioid peptides. Thus, pain can often be managed using psychoactives that operate on this neurotransmitter system, also known as opioid receptor agonists. This class of drugs can be highly addictive, and includes opiate narcotics, like morphine and codeine.^[19] NSAIDs, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, are also analgesics. These agents also reduce eicosanoid-mediated inflammation by inhibiting the enzyme cyclooxygenase.

Mental disorders[edit]

Psychiatric medications are psychoactive drugs prescribed for the management of mental and emotional disorders, or to aid in overcoming challenging behavior.^[20] There are six major classes of psychiatric medications:

• Antidepressants treat disorders such as clinical depression, dysthymia, anxiety, eating disorders and borderline personality disorder.^[21]
• Stimulants, used to treat disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and narcolepsy, and for weight reduction.
• Antipsychotics, used to treat psychotic symptoms, such as those associated with schizophrenia or severe mania, or as adjuncts to relieve clinical depression.
• Mood stabilizers, used to treat bipolar disorder and schizoaffective disorder.
• Anxiolytics, used to treat anxiety disorders.
• Depressants, used as hypnotics, sedatives, and anesthetics, depending upon dosage.

In addition, several psychoactive substances are currently employed to treat various addictions. These include acamprosate or naltrexone in the treatment of alcoholism, or methadone or buprenorphine maintenance therapy in the case of opioid addiction.^[22]

Exposure to psychoactive drugs can cause changes to the brain that counteract or augment some of their effects; these changes may be beneficial or harmful. However, there is a significant amount of evidence that the relapse rate of mental disorders negatively corresponds with the length of properly followed treatment regimens (that is, relapse rate substantially declines over time), and to a much greater degree than placebo.^[23]

Recreation[edit]

Many psychoactive substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and psychiatry. Examples of psychoactive substances include caffeine, alcohol, cocaine, LSD, nicotine and cannabis.^[24] Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally include:

• Stimulants, which activate the central nervous system. These are used recreationally for their euphoric effects.
• Hallucinogens (psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants), which induce perceptual and cognitive alterations.
• Hypnotics, which depress the central nervous system.
• Opioid analgesics, which also depress the central nervous system. These are used recreationally because of their euphoric effects.
• Inhalants, in the forms of gas aerosols, or solvents, which are inhaled as a vapor because of their stupefying effects. Many inhalants also fall into the above categories (such as nitrous oxide which is also an analgesic).

In some modern and ancient cultures, drug usage is seen as a status symbol. Recreational drugs are seen as status symbols in settings such as at nightclubs and parties.^[25] For example, in ancient Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic plants.^[26]

Because there is controversy about regulation of recreational drugs, there is an ongoing debate about drug prohibition. Critics of prohibition believe that regulation of recreational drug use is a violation of personal autonomy and freedom.^[27] In the United States, critics have noted that prohibition or regulation of recreational and spiritual drug use might be unconstitutional, and causing more harm than is prevented.^[28]

Some people who take psychoactive drugs experience drug or substance induced psychosis. A 2019 systematic review and meta-analysis by Murrie et al. found that the pooled proportion of transition from substance-induced psychosis to schizophrenia was 25% (95% CI 18%–35%), compared with 36% (95% CI 30%–43%) for brief, atypical and not otherwise specified psychoses.^[29] Type of substance was the primary predictor of transition from drug-induced psychosis to schizophrenia, with highest rates associated with cannabis (6 studies, 34%, CI 25%–46%), hallucinogens (3 studies, 26%, CI 14%–43%) and amphetamines (5 studies, 22%, CI 14%–34%). Lower rates were reported for opioid (12%), alcohol (10%) and sedative (9%) induced psychoses. Transition rates were slightly lower in older cohorts but were not affected by sex, country of the study, hospital or community location, urban or rural setting, diagnostic methods, or duration of follow-up.^[29]

Ritual and spiritual[edit]

Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. Native Americans have used peyote cacti containing mescaline for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years.^[30] The muscimol-containing Amanita muscaria mushroom was used for ritual purposes throughout prehistoric Europe.^[31]

The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new spiritual and intention-based movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as tools to access deeper inner exploration. In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual purposes is protected only for members of the Native American Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote. However, the genuine religious use of peyote, regardless of one’s personal ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, and Oregon.^[32]

Military[edit]

Psychoactive drugs have been used in military applications as non-lethal weapons.

Both military and civilian American intelligence officials are known to have used psychoactive drugs while interrogating captives apprehended in its «war on terror». In July 2012 Jason Leopold and Jeffrey Kaye, psychologists and human rights workers, had a Freedom of Information Act request fulfilled that confirmed that the use of psychoactive drugs during interrogation was a long-standing
practice.^[33][34] Captives and former captives had been reporting medical staff collaborating with interrogators to drug captives with powerful psychoactive drugs prior to interrogation since the very first captives release.^[35][36]
In May 2003 recently released Pakistani captive Sha Mohammed Alikhel described the routine use of psychoactive drugs. He said that Jihan Wali, a captive kept in a nearby cell, was rendered catatonic through the use of these drugs.^{[citation needed]}

Additionally, militaries worldwide have used or are using various psychoactive drugs to improve performance of soldiers by suppressing hunger, increasing the ability to sustain effort without food, increasing and lengthening wakefulness and concentration, suppressing fear, reducing empathy, and improving reflexes and memory-recall among other things.^[37][38]

The first documented case of a soldier overdosing on methamphetamine during combat, was the Finnish corporal Aimo Koivunen, a soldier who fought in the Winter War and the Continuation War.^[39][40]

Route of administration[edit]

Psychoactive drugs are administered via oral ingestion as a tablet, capsule, powder, liquid, and beverage; via injection by subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous route; via rectum by suppository and enema; and via inhalation by smoking, vaporizing, and snorting. The efficiency of each method of administration varies from drug to drug.^[41]

The psychiatric drugs fluoxetine, quetiapine, and lorazepam are ingested orally in tablet or capsule form. Alcohol and caffeine are ingested in beverage form; nicotine and cannabis are smoked or vaporized; peyote and psilocybin mushrooms are ingested in botanical form or dried; and crystalline drugs such as cocaine and methamphetamine are usually inhaled or snorted.

Determinants of effects[edit]

The theory of dosage, set, and setting is a useful model in dealing with the effects of psychoactive substances, especially in a controlled therapeutic setting as well as in recreational use. Dr. Timothy Leary, based on his own experiences and systematic observations on psychedelics, developed this theory along with his colleagues Ralph Metzner, and Richard Alpert (Ram Dass) in the 1960s.^[42]

Dosage

The first factor, dosage, has been a truism since ancient times, or at least since Paracelsus who said, «Dose makes the poison.» Some compounds are beneficial or pleasurable when consumed in small amounts, but harmful, deadly, or evoke discomfort in higher doses.

Set

The set is the internal attitudes and constitution of the person, including their expectations, wishes, fears, and sensitivity to the drug. This factor is especially important for the hallucinogens, which have the ability to make conscious experiences out of the unconscious. In traditional cultures, set is shaped primarily by the worldview, health and genetic characteristics that all the members of the culture share.

Setting

The third aspect is setting, which pertains to the surroundings, the place, and the time in which the experiences transpire.

This theory clearly states that the effects are equally the result of chemical, pharmacological, psychological, and physical influences. The model that Timothy Leary proposed applied to the psychedelics, although it also applies to other psychoactives.^[43]

Effects[edit]

Psychoactive drugs operate by temporarily affecting a person’s neurochemistry, which in turn causes changes in a person’s mood, cognition, perception and behavior. There are many ways in which psychoactive drugs can affect the brain. Each drug has a specific action on one or more neurotransmitter or neuroreceptor in the brain.

Drugs that increase activity in particular neurotransmitter systems are called agonists. They act by increasing the synthesis of one or more neurotransmitters, by reducing its reuptake from the synapses, or by mimicking the action by binding directly to the postsynaptic receptor. Drugs that reduce neurotransmitter activity are called antagonists, and operate by interfering with synthesis or blocking postsynaptic receptors so that neurotransmitters cannot bind to them.^[44]

Exposure to a psychoactive substance can cause changes in the structure and functioning of neurons, as the nervous system tries to re-establish the homeostasis disrupted by the presence of the drug (see also, neuroplasticity). Exposure to antagonists for a particular neurotransmitter can increase the number of receptors for that neurotransmitter or the receptors themselves may become more responsive to neurotransmitters; this is called sensitization. Conversely, overstimulation of receptors for a particular neurotransmitter may cause a decrease in both number and sensitivity of these receptors, a process called desensitization or tolerance. Sensitization and desensitization are more likely to occur with long-term exposure, although they may occur after only a single exposure. These processes are thought to play a role in drug dependence and addiction.^[45] Physical dependence on antidepressants or anxiolytics may result in worse depression or anxiety, respectively, as withdrawal symptoms. Unfortunately, because clinical depression (also called major depressive disorder) is often referred to simply as depression, antidepressants are often requested by and prescribed for patients who are depressed, but not clinically depressed.

Affected neurotransmitter systems[edit]

The following is a brief table of notable drugs and their primary neurotransmitter, receptor or method of action. Many drugs act on more than one transmitter or receptor in the brain.^[46]

Neurotransmitter/receptor	Classification	Examples
Acetylcholine	Cholinergics (acetylcholine receptor agonists)	arecoline, nicotine, piracetam
Muscarinic antagonists (acetylcholine receptor antagonists)	scopolamine, benzatropine, dimenhydrinate, diphenhydramine, trihexiphenidyl, doxylamine, atropine, quetiapine, olanzapine, most tricyclics
Nicotinic antagonists (acetylcholine receptor antagonists)	memantine, bupropion
Adenosine	Adenosine receptor antagonists[47]	caffeine, theobromine, theophylline
Dopamine	Dopamine reuptake inhibitors	cocaine, bupropion, methylphenidate, St John’s wort, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, and methamphetamine
Dopamine releasing agents	Cavendish bananas,[48] TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, and methamphetamine
Dopamine agonists	pramipexole, Ropinirole, L-DOPA (prodrug), memantine
Dopamine antagonists	haloperidol, droperidol, many antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine)
Dopamine partial agonists	LSD, aripiprazole
gamma-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)	GABA reuptake inhibitors	tiagabine, St John’s wort, vigabatrin, deramciclane
GABAA receptor agonists	ethanol, niacin,[49] barbiturates, diazepam, clonazepam, lorazepam, temazepam, alprazolam and other benzodiazepines, zolpidem, eszopiclone, zaleplon and other nonbenzodiazepines, muscimol, phenibut
GABAA receptor positive allosteric modulators
GABA receptor antagonists	thujone, bicuculline
GABAA receptor negative allosteric modulators
Norepinephrine	Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors	St John’s wort,[50] most non-SSRI antidepressants such as amoxapine, atomoxetine, bupropion, venlafaxine, quetiapine, the tricyclics, methylphenidate, SNRIs such as duloxetine, venlafaxine, cocaine, tramadol, and certain TAAR1 agonists like amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine.
Norepinephrine releasing agents	ephedrine, PPA, pseudoephedrine, amphetamine, phenethylamine, methamphetamine
Adrenergic agonists	clonidine, guanfacine, phenylephrine
Adrenergic antagonists	carvedilol, metoprolol, mianserin, prazosin, propranolol, trazodone, yohimbine, olanzapine
Serotonin	Serotonin receptor agonists	triptans (e.g. sumatriptan, eletriptan), psychedelics (e.g. lysergic acid diethylamide, psilocybin, mescaline), ergolines (e.g. lisuride, bromocriptine)
Serotonin reuptake inhibitors	most antidepressants including St John’s wort, tricyclics such as imipramine, SSRIs (e.g. fluoxetine, sertraline, escitalopram), SNRIs (e.g. duloxetine, venlafaxine)
Serotonin releasing agents	fenfluramine, MDMA (ecstasy), tryptamine
Serotonin receptor antagonists	ritanserin, mirtazapine, mianserin, trazodone, cyproheptadine, memantine, atypical antipsychotics (e.g., risperidone, olanzapine, quetiapine)
AMPA receptor	AMPA receptor positive allosteric modulators	aniracetam, CX717, piracetam
AMPA receptor antagonists	kynurenic acid, NBQX, topiramate
Cannabinoid	Cannabinoid receptor agonists	JWH-018
Cannabinoid receptor partial agonists	Anandamide, THC, cannabidiol, cannabinol
Cannabinoid receptor inverse agonists	Rimonabant
Anandamide reuptake inhibitors	LY 2183240, VDM 11, AM 404
FAAH enzyme inhibitors	MAFP, URB597, N-Arachidonylglycine
NMDA receptor	NMDA receptor antagonists	ethanol, ketamine, deschloroketamine, 2-Fluorodeschloroketamine, PCP, DXM, Nitrous Oxide, memantine
GHB receptor	GHB receptor agonists	GHB, T-HCA
Sigma receptor	Sigma-1 receptor agonists	cocaine, DMT, DXM, fluvoxamine, ibogaine, opipramol, PCP, methamphetamine
Sigma-2 receptor agonists	methamphetamine
Opioid receptor	μ-opioid receptor agonists	Narcotic opioids (e.g. codeine, morphine, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, oxycodone, oxymorphone, heroin, fentanyl)
μ-opioid receptor partial agonists	buprenorphine
μ-opioid receptor inverse agonists	naloxone
μ-opioid receptor antagonists	naltrexone
κ-opioid receptor agonists	salvinorin A, butorphanol, nalbuphine, pentazocine, ibogaine[51]
κ-opioid receptor antagonists	buprenorphine
Histamine receptor	H1 receptor antagonists	diphenhydramine, doxylamine, mirtazapine, mianserin, quetiapine, olanzapine, meclozine, most tricyclics
H3 receptor antagonists	pitolisant
Indirect histamine receptor agonists	modafinil[52]
Monoamine oxidase	Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)	phenelzine, iproniazid, tranylcypromine, selegiline, rasagiline, moclobemide, isocarboxazid, Linezolid, benmoxin, St John’s wort, coffee,[53] garlic[54]
Melatonin receptor	Melatonin receptor agonists	agomelatine, melatonin, ramelteon, tasimelteon
Imidazoline receptor	Imidazoline receptor agonists	apraclonidine, clonidine, moxonidine, rilmenidine
Orexin receptor	Inderict Orexin receptor agonists	modafinil[55]
Orexin receptor antagonists	SB-334,867, SB-408,124, TCS-OX2-29, suvorexant

Addiction and dependence[edit]

Addiction and dependence glossary[56][57][58][59]
addiction – a biopsychosocial disorder characterized by persistent use of drugs (including alcohol) despite substantial harm and adverse consequences addictive drug – psychoactive substances that with repeated use are associated with significantly higher rates of substance use disorders, due in large part to the drug’s effect on brain reward systems dependence – an adaptive state associated with a withdrawal syndrome upon cessation of repeated exposure to a stimulus (e.g., drug intake) drug sensitization or reverse tolerance – the escalating effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose drug withdrawal – symptoms that occur upon cessation of repeated drug use physical dependence – dependence that involves persistent physical–somatic withdrawal symptoms (e.g., fatigue and delirium tremens) psychological dependence – dependence that involves emotional–motivational withdrawal symptoms (e.g., dysphoria and anhedonia) reinforcing stimuli – stimuli that increase the probability of repeating behaviors paired with them rewarding stimuli – stimuli that the brain interprets as intrinsically positive and desirable or as something to approach sensitization – an amplified response to a stimulus resulting from repeated exposure to it substance use disorder – a condition in which the use of substances leads to clinically and functionally significant impairment or distress tolerance – the diminishing effect of a drug resulting from repeated administration at a given dose
v t e

Psychoactive drugs are often associated with addiction or drug dependence. Dependence can be divided into two types: psychological dependence, by which a user experiences negative psychological or emotional withdrawal symptoms (e.g., depression) and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically uncomfortable or even medically harmful physical withdrawal symptoms.^[61] Drugs that are both rewarding and reinforcing are addictive; these properties of a drug are mediated through activation of the mesolimbic dopamine pathway, particularly the nucleus accumbens. Not all addictive drugs are associated with physical dependence, e.g., amphetamine, and not all drugs that produce physical dependence are addictive drugs, e.g., caffeine.

Many professionals, self-help groups, and businesses specialize in drug rehabilitation, with varying degrees of success, and many parents attempt to influence the actions and choices of their children regarding psychoactives.^[62]

Common forms of rehabilitation include psychotherapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy, which uses psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms while a user is going through detox. Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is a common treatment for heroin addiction, as is another opioid, buprenorphine. Recent research on addiction has shown some promise in using psychedelics such as ibogaine to treat and even cure drug addictions, although this has yet to become a widely accepted practice.^[63][64]

Legality[edit]

The legality of psychoactive drugs has been controversial through most of recent history; the Second Opium War and Prohibition are two historical examples of legal controversy surrounding psychoactive drugs. However, in recent years, the most influential document regarding the legality of psychoactive drugs is the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, an international treaty signed in 1961 as an Act of the United Nations. Signed by 73 nations including the United States, the USSR, Pakistan, India, and the United Kingdom, the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs established Schedules for the legality of each drug and laid out an international agreement to fight addiction to recreational drugs by combatting the sale, trafficking, and use of scheduled drugs.^[65] All countries that signed the treaty passed laws to implement these rules within their borders. However, some countries that signed the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, such as the Netherlands, are more lenient with their enforcement of these laws.^[66]

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has authority over all drugs, including psychoactive drugs. The FDA regulates which psychoactive drugs are over the counter and which are only available with a prescription.^[67] However, certain psychoactive drugs, like alcohol, tobacco, and drugs listed in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs are subject to criminal laws. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 regulates the recreational drugs outlined in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.^[68] Alcohol is regulated by state governments, but the federal National Minimum Drinking Age Act penalizes states for not following a national drinking age.^[69] Tobacco is also regulated by all fifty state governments.^[70] Most people accept such restrictions and prohibitions of certain drugs, especially the «hard» drugs, which are illegal in most countries.^[71][72][73]

In the medical context, psychoactive drugs as a treatment for illness is widespread and generally accepted. Little controversy exists concerning over the counter psychoactive medications in antiemetics and antitussives. Psychoactive drugs are commonly prescribed to patients with psychiatric disorders. However, certain critics^[who?] believe that certain prescription psychoactives, such as antidepressants and stimulants, are overprescribed and threaten patients’ judgement and autonomy.^[74][75]

Effect on animals[edit]

A number of animals consume different psychoactive plants, animals, berries and even fermented fruit, becoming intoxicated, such as cats after consuming catnip. Traditional legends of sacred plants often contain references to animals that introduced humankind to their use.^[76] Animals and psychoactive plants appear to have co-evolved, possibly explaining why these chemicals and their receptors exist within the nervous system.^[77]

Widely used psychoactive drugs[edit]

This is a list of commonly used drugs that contain psychoactive ingredients. Please note that the following lists contains legal and illegal drugs (based on the country’s laws).

• Alcohol
• Benzodiazepines
• Caffeine
• Cannabis
• Cocaine
• Heroin
• LSD
• Methamphetamine
• Ecstasy
• Nicotine
• Opioids
• Psilocybin mushrooms

See also[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Neuroscience of Psychoactive Substance Use and Dependence by the WHO

Как правильно пишется слово «психоактивный»

психоакти́вный

Источник: Орфографический
академический ресурс «Академос» Института русского языка им. В.В. Виноградова РАН (словарная база
2020)

Русский[править]

Морфологические и синтаксические свойства[править]

падеж	ед. ч.	мн. ч.
муж. р.	ср. р.	жен. р.
Им.	психоакти́вный	психоакти́вное	психоакти́вная	психоакти́вные
Р.	психоакти́вного	психоакти́вного	психоакти́вной	психоакти́вных
Д.	психоакти́вному	психоакти́вному	психоакти́вной	психоакти́вным
В.	одуш.	психоакти́вного	психоакти́вное	психоакти́вную	психоакти́вных
неод.	психоакти́вный	психоакти́вные
Т.	психоакти́вным	психоакти́вным	психоакти́вной психоакти́вною	психоакти́вными
П.	психоакти́вном	психоакти́вном	психоакти́вной	психоакти́вных
Кратк. форма	психоакти́вен	психоакти́вно	психоакти́вна	психоакти́вны

психоакти́вный

Прилагательное, тип склонения по классификации А. Зализняка — 1*a. Сравнительная степень — психоакти́внее, психоакти́вней.

Корень: -псих-; интерфикс: -о-; корень: -актив-; суффикс: -н; окончание: -ый.

Произношение[править]

• МФА: [psʲɪxɐɐˈktʲivnɨɪ̯]

Семантические свойства[править]

Значение[править]

1. активизирующий психические функции и эмоциональное состояние организма ◆ Отсутствует пример употребления (см. рекомендации).

Синонимы[править]

Антонимы[править]

Гиперонимы[править]

1. активный

Гипонимы[править]

Родственные слова[править]

Ближайшее родство

Этимология[править]

Происходит от ??

Фразеологизмы и устойчивые сочетания[править]

Перевод[править]

Список переводов

Библиография[править]

• Новые слова и значения. Словарь-справочник по материалам прессы и литературы 80-х годов / Под ред. Е. А. Левашова. — СПб. : Дмитрий Буланин, 1997.

Психоактивным веществом (ПАВ) называют все, что при попадании в организм нарушает способности к восприятию окружающей действительности, меняет настроение, поведение, познавательные способности и двигательные функции. В сегодняшней статье мы подробнее расскажем о разновидностях ПАВ и их влиянии на организм. 

• Что такое психоактивные вещества или ПАВ
• Действие наркотического вещества
• Побочные эффекты
• Виды психоактивных веществ в наркологии
• Алкоголь
• Никотин
• Галлюциногены
• Стимулирующие вещества
• Опиоиды
• Каннабиноиды
• Эйфоретики
• Диссоциативные вещества
• Аптечные препараты
• Сочетание психоактивных веществ
• Самые опасные психоактивные вещества
• Передозировка психоактивными веществами: основные симптомы
• Ломка при отмене
• Формирование зависимости от ПАВ
• Лечение зависимости от психоактивных веществ в центре «АлкоЗдрав» 

Развернуть

Что такое психоактивные вещества или ПАВ?

Чаще всего под психоактивными веществами подразумевают наркотики. Последние годы проблема наркомании стоит в обществе особенно остро. Самое страшное, что она затрагивает все слои населения, независимо от социального положения, уровня достатка, пола и даже возраста.

Запрещенные вещества могут иметь органическую и синтетическую природу. Поскольку производство и оборот наркотиков вне закона, их состав никем не регулируется. Купленное ПАВ может включать в себя ртуть, свинец, бензин, растворители, просроченные медикаменты и другие высокотоксичные компоненты. Поэтому даже единичный прием может закончиться смертью.

Действие наркотического вещества

Точный психотропный эффект зависит от разновидности наркотика. Чаще всего у потребителя нарушается ориентация в окружающем пространстве, изменяется мыслительная деятельность, возникают устойчивые обманы восприятия. 

Некоторые наркотические вещества после приема вызывают не ожидаемое чувство опьянения, а так называемый “бэд-трип”. Это “побочный эффект” наркопотребления, в ходе которого человека охватывает ужас, неспособность адекватно оценивать время и пространство, а также навязчивый галлюциноз с устрашающими образами. Длиться это состояние может несколько часов. Его главная опасность — это риск совершения неадекватных поступков при попытке вырваться из лап ужаса. Это может быть нанесение себе увечий, нападение на окружающих или попытка самоубийства. 

Побочные эффекты

Употребление наркотиков — это путь к полной личностной деградации. Согласно статистике, наркомания приводит к таким последствиям: 

• Развитие заболеваний внутренних органов, инвалидизация.
• Смерть в результате передозировки, неудачной комбинации ПАВ или отравления.
• Проблемы с законом в результате хранения, производства или продажи запрещенных веществ.
• Совершение тяжких уголовных преступлений в неадекватном состоянии.
• Серьезные финансовые проблемы: долги и давление коллекторов из-за постоянной нехватки денег на наркотики.
• Возможность стать жертвой преступления из-за контактов с маргинальными людьми. 
• Рискованное сексуальное поведение. 
• Инфицирование ВИЧ, СПИД, гепатитом и другими тяжелыми заболеваниями при использовании нестерильного оборудования во время введения наркотика.

Человек полностью деградирует: как морально, так и физически. Круг его интересов сужается. Он теряет работу, друзей, родственников, интерес к жизни, и даже морально-нравственные ценности отступают перед лицом ломки. Сначала употребление наркотиков является следствием больного интереса, а затем оно становится вынужденной необходимостью для поддержания стабильного самочувствия. 

Виды психоактивных веществ в наркологии

Выделяют две крупные категории психоактивных веществ: легальные и запрещенные. К первым относят никотин, алкоголь и кофеин, а ко вторым относятся наркотические вещества. 

Алкоголь

Алкоголь — это одно из самых коварных психотропных веществ. Это связано с такими причинами:

• доступность (его может купить каждый человек, достигший совершеннолетия);
• лояльность к алкоголю в обществе (алкопотребление часто носит ритуальный характер и является предметом насмешек);
• быстрое и незаметное развитие алкогольной зависимости. 

Алкоголь является депрессантом: после его приема замедляются психические функции, речь, нарушается координация движений. Аддикция особенно быстро развивается у женщин и подростков. Зачастую зависимость родителей имеет долгосрочные последствия, в результате чего нарушается генофонд. 

Никотин

Легальное психоактивное вещество, содержащееся в табачной продукции. Последние годы никотиновая зависимость обрела огромное распространение, особенно среди молодежи. Это связано с расширением ассортимента табачного рынка: появлением ароматизированных электронных испарителей, нагревателей и т.д. 

Никотин обладает стимулирующим свойством. Он достаточно быстро вызывает физическую и психическую зависимость. Отчасти это связано с романтизацией табакокурения со стороны медиа, воздействующей на неокрепшие умы молодого поколения.

Галлюциногены

Этот вид ПАВ способен менять ощущение времени, пространства и собственного “Я”. Может иметь натуральную или синтетическую природу. К последствиям приема относят:

• высокий риск возникновения “бэд-трипа”, заканчивающегося самоубийством или несчастным случаем;
• возникновение “флэшбеков”, т.к. повторения психоактивного действия наркотика через несколько месяцев после его приема (в состоянии трезвости); 
• ухудшение памяти и концентрации внимания;
• возможность манифестации шизофрении и других ментальных заболеваний в результате употребления.

К галлюциногенам относят: ЛСД, псилоцибин, дурман, кетамин, MDA, MDMA. 

Стимулирующие средства

Эта группа наркотиков повышает агрессию, вызывает чувство уверенности в себе, стимулирует желание общаться и выполнять физическую работу. Стимуляторы оказывают разрушительный эффект на сердечно-сосудистую систему из-за способности сильно повышать кровяное давление и частоту сердечных сокращений. Они высвобождают внутренние ресурсы организма, поэтому после прекращения действия человек ощущает слабость и разбитость, впадает в депрессию. 

Последствия приема — необратимые нарушения психики, развитие паранойи, высокий риск стимуляторного психоза. Данный вид ПАВ является частой причиной совершения тяжелых преступлений в неадекватном состоянии. Самые популярные психостимуляторы — амфетамин, кокаин, крэк, эфедрин. 

Опиоиды

Этот вид ПАВ частично используется в медицине благодаря прямому воздействию на опиоидные рецепторы, находящиеся в ЦНС. К примеру, “Морфин” — это препарат, который ранее использовался для купирования сильных болевых ощущений. Поскольку такие лекарства вызывают наркотический эффект после увеличения дозировки, их продажа осуществляется строго по рецепту. 

Из-за особенностей наркопотребления прием опиоидов нередко приводит к заражению через шприц. Другие последствия — это передозировка и гангрена (особенно часто при употреблении дезоморфина). Угнетение ЦНС может стать причиной остановки сердца и дыхания. Представители — героин, метадон, дезоморфин, кодеин. 

Каннабиноиды

Группа запрещенных веществ, изготовленных на основе каннабиса. Это самый популярный наркотик, главная опасность которого заключается в недооценивании зависимых вреда для здоровья. Каннабиноиды вызывают такие последствия:

• снижение когнитивных способностей;
• гормональные нарушения у мужчин, половые дисфункции и бесплодие;
• возникновение психозов;
• развитие каннабиноидного артериита;
• морфологическое ухудшение состояния гиппокампа.

Все вышеуказанные осложнения подтверждены научными исследованиями. Представители: марихуана, гашиш, анаша. 

Эйфоретики

Данная группа ПАВ вызывает возбуждение нервной системы. После приема эйфоретики усиливают восприятие внешних импульсов, вызывают желание общаться и вступать в половые связи. Чаще всего эйфоретики и эмпатогены реализуются на рейв-вечеринках, в клубах и т.д., поэтому имеют наибольшее распространение среди молодежи. К ним относится: экстази, МДМА, мефедрон.

Диссоциативные вещества

Диссоциативами называют ПАВ, нарушающие восприятие внешнего мира и нормальную работу сознания. После приема человек ощущает зрительные и визуальные галлюцинации, которые сопровождаются чувством собственной отчужденности от реальности. Дереализация и деперсонализация вызваны нарушением баланса нейротрансмиттера глутамата в головном мозге. Примеры — фенциклидин и кетамин. 

Аптечные препараты

Последние годы стремительно увеличилась распространенность аптечной наркомании. Наркозависимые находят обходные способы добычи препаратов, изменяющих сознание. Также их используют в качестве прекурсора. Самые распространенные группы таблеток среди наркопотребителей:

• антидепрессанты — средства для лечения депрессии;
• седативные средства: бензодиазепины, барбитураты, транквилизаторы;
• опиоидные препараты, в том числе кодеиносодержащие таблетки и сиропы.

Сочетание психоактивных веществ

Систематическое употребление ПАВ приводит к ряду физических и психических нарушений. Комбинация наркотиков между собой также заканчивается летальным исходом. Так, алкоголь усиливает токсическое действие большинства психоактивных веществ. После сочетания наркотиков со спиртным усиливается их основное действие. Хуже всего приходится в случае, если человек употребил депрессант (например, героин). 

Самые опасные психоактивные вещества

Наркологи единогласно утверждают: легких наркотиков не существует. Любое запрещенное вещество способно превратить жизнь человека в ад. Так, каннабис, к которому многие относятся лояльно, является “трамплином” в мир более тяжелых наркотиков.

На сегодняшний день самой тяжелой группой наркотиков считаются опиоиды. К ним относится героин, вызывающий аддикцию уже после нескольких уколов. Самая последняя ступень опиоидной зависимости — это употребление дезоморфина. По-другому это сильнодействующее вещество называют “крокодил”. Это наименование связано с тем, что из-за сосудистых ожогов у наркопотребителя нарушается трофика тканей. Следствием является возникновение сухих и влажных гангрен, которые вынуждают врачей провести ампутацию конечностей. Другая причина такого названия — это появление язв на теле, которые придают ему “чешуйчатый” внешний вид.

Передозировка психотропными веществами: основные симптомы

В процессе употребления психоактивных веществ в метаболизме человека возникают серьезные нарушения. Так, со временем развивается толерантность, т.е. невосприимчивость прежних дозировок наркотика. Чтобы добиться желаемого эффекта, наркозависимый вынужден постепенно увеличивать дозу. Другая причина — это нестабильная концентрация активного вещества в наркотике, из-за которого даже привычная доза может стать причиной интоксикации. К базовым симптомам передозировки относятся:

• При употреблении психостимуляторов: резкое повышение кровяного давления, учащение сердцебиения, высокая потливость, покраснение кожных покровов, судороги. Человек выглядит взбудораженным, зрачки расширены. Может возникнуть чрезмерная агрессия и галлюциноз. Передозировка может закончиться смертью из-за несчастных случаев или острых сосудистых нарушений.
• При употреблении депрессантов (например, опиатов) может возникнуть потеря сознания, заторможенность речи, нарушение координации. Зрачок сужен, кожа бледная, липкая и холодная. Больной может погибнуть от остановки сердца и дыхания, а также в результате аспирации дыхательных путей рвотными массами.

Передозировка часто заканчивается летальным исходом, поэтому при появлении ее симптомов нужно немедленно обратиться за врачебной помощью. 

Ломка при отмене

Со временем организм адаптируется к стандартным дозам психоактивного вещества. Его метаболиты встраиваются в обменные процессы: они становятся частью функционирования внутренних систем. Резкая остановка наркопотребления сопровождается сильнейшим недомоганием, которые в народе именуют “ломкой”. Симптомы абстиненции зависят от точной разновидности принимаемого наркотика. Несмотря на это, существуют общие признаки ломки:

• постоянное ощущение холода, озноб;
• потливость;
• тошнота, рвота;
• паника;
• чувство ломоты в теле;
• насморк, кашель, слезоточивость;
• судорожные приступы, спазм скелетной мускулатуры;
• боль в костях;
• скачки артериального давления и ЧСС;
• галлюциноз;
• сильное желание принять наркотик;
• вспышки агрессии.

Недомогание может достигать такой силы, что наркозависимый согласится на все, чтобы достать наркотики. Также он способен совершить самоубийство в порыве отчаяния или галлюциноза. 

Хронические заболевания в этот период обостряются. Поэтому у части наркозависимых возникают острые нарушения кровообращения во время ломки (инсульт, инфаркт), а также дисфункции почек. Самостоятельная борьба с абстиненцией малоэффективна. Препараты, продающиеся без рецепта, не помогут избавиться от судорожных приступов и сильной боли. Обращение к врачу необходимо! 

Формирование зависимости от ПАВ

Наркомания — это психофизическое заболевание, которое затрагивает все аспекты личности. Зачастую аддикция протекает сразу в двух формах:

• Психологическая. Подразумевает под собой само желание достичь состояния опьянения, чтобы “развлечься” или абстрагироваться от собственных проблем. Часто психологическая зависимость берет начало из глубоких внутренних переживаний и социальной дезинтегрированности.
• Физиологическая. Развивается на последних стадиях наркомании. Подразумевает под собой необходимость в периодическом введении ПАВ для избежания ломки.

Обе разновидности наркомании дополняют друг друга. Даже после купирования ломки наркозависимый возвращается к употреблению, поскольку психологический базис заболевания не был проработан. Ремиссия достигается только после преодоления физической тяги в стационаре, а затем психологической зависимости в реабилитационном центре (терапия длится от 6 месяцев до года). 

Лечение зависимости от психоактивных веществ в центре «АлкоЗдрав» 

Наркологический центр “АлкоЗдрав” осуществляет профессиональное лечение зависимости от психоактивных веществ. Мы оказываем медицинскую помощь на таких условиях:

• гарантия сохранения анонимности каждого пациента;
• комплексный подход к терапии;
• использование современной аппаратуры и сертифицированных лекарств;
• психологическая поддержка родственников больного;
• использование самых результативных терапевтических программ;
• комфортабельные условия содержания.

Чтобы получить больше информации о стоимости и условиях лечения, свяжитесь с администраторами центра “АлкоЗдрав” по номеру горячей линии. 

Список источников:

• Острые отравления психоактивными веществами. Ведение пациентов с острыми отравлениями психоактивными веществами Лобан Илья Анатольевич, Шилович Ольга Сергеевна (2016).
• О проблеме зависимости от психоактивных веществ Борисова М. Н. (2004).
• Психологическая зависимость от психоактивных веществ Редянова Н.В. (2016).