Как пишется тутанхамон иероглифами

1) Чтобы прочесть имя фараона, надо разобраться с тем, как вообще записываются имена царей и фараонов. Из сравнения с титулами и с именами богов мы видим, что имена царей и фараонов заключены в овал с вертикальной чертой. Это так называемый картуш (так его назвал по-французски дешифровщик египетской письменности Жан-Франсуа Шампольон). Часть, предшествующая картушу, — это титул, и здесь он легко находится: «сын Ра». Ра — это, очевидно, имя Бога Солнца, верховного божества египетского пантеона.

2) Из сравнения записи имени бога Ра и записи титула «сын Ра» можно заключить, что основным элементом записи этого имени является кружок с точкой, по-видимому изображающий солнечный диск. Однако в записи имени бога присутствуют еще два элемента: штрих под диском и сидящая фигура. Подобная фигура сопровождает все имена богов, кроме Анубиса, для которого фигура имеет голову собаки (известно, что Анубис, бог подземного царства, у египтян изображался с головой шакала). По-видимому, такая фигура является смысловой подсказкой, своеобразной «иконкой», а не читаемым знаком, так как имена богов не содержат одинаковых звуков ни в начале, ни в конце. Шампольон назвал такие знаки «детерминативами», то есть определителями. Своего рода определителем имени фараона является и картуш.

3) Вертикальная черта при знаке солнца Ра встречается еще один раз — в имени Амон-Ра; еще в нескольких случаях диск используется без черты. Можно предположить, что черта сопровождает диск только в именах богов (но не фараонов). С другой стороны, три вертикальных черты встречаются в титуле «владелец корон»; это наводит на мысль, что три черты передают множественность, однако здесь нет возможности проверить эту гипотезу.

4) Первая часть заданного имени встречается в имени Амон-Ра с чтением [imen] (условно: перо — шахматная доска — волна). Дальше надо найти чтения трех знаков: полудиска, цыпленка и знака типа жезла с петлей1. Цыпленок встречается дважды в имени Хеопса [khufu], откуда можно вывести, что он передает звук [u]. Полудиск встречается в имени Птах, где, по-видимому, передает звук [t]. Знак жезла встречается в титуле «дающий жизнь» [diānkh] из двух знаков, что позволяет предположить, что звуковое значение данного знака [ānkh]. Это предположение подтверждается записью имени Панки, где квадратик соответствует [p] (ср. Птах, Анубис), а два знака пера (или камыша) передают долгое [ī] (ср. Анубис, Амон-Ра).

Прочтение знаков в картуше дает /imen-t-u-t-ānkh/. Кажется, задание 1 выполнено (хотя это не похоже ни на какое из известных имен фараонов).

5) Попробуем выполнить задание 2. Для записи хорошей подсказкой должно послужить последнее имя фараона Хахепер-Ра. Оно записано всего тремя знаками, однако начинается со знака Ра [rā]. Может быть, читать надо в обратном порядке? Но до сих пор всё непротиворечиво читалось слева направо. Возможно, обратный порядок используется только в именах фараонов? Попробуем прочесть с конца. Тогда первый знак — жук — должен иметь чтение [khep(e)r] — это следует из имени бога Хепри. Второй же знак, видимо, [khā]. В обратном чтении это дает /khep(e)r-khā-rā/, что не соответствует данному в условии прочтению. Очевидно, обычный порядок записи слева направо нарушается лишь вынесением на первое место знака для Ра. Это наблюдение подтверждается записью имени Хефрена /rā-khā-f/. Можно предположить, что имена фараонов, содержащие имя бога Ра, требуют инверсии — вынесения знака Ра на «почетное» первое место.

6) Однако знак для Ра имеется и в имени Эхнатон [akhenitenrā], но ему предшествует группа знаков, которые, по-видимому, читаются [iten] (ср. [imen] в Амон-Ра). То есть имя Эхнатон записано /iten-rā-akhen/. Почему же здесь Ра не на первом месте? По-видимому, в данном случае имя верховного бога, требующее почетного первого места, не просто Ра, а Итен-Ра, то есть Атон-Ра2.

7) Теперь можем записать имя Менхепер-Ра, используя знаки в картуше в следующем порядке: /rā-m-n-kheper/, то есть диск — шахматная доска — волна — жук, что дает в транскрипции [menkheperrā].

8) Но тогда верно ли мы прочли имя фараона в первом задании? Ведь имя бога выносится на первое место только в записи, а в произношении присутствует в конце. А в начале данной записи стоит имя Амон (даже без Ра). Если прочесть в инвертированном порядке, получается /t-u-t-ānkh-imen/, что уже позволяет узнать имя фараона Тутанхамона.


1 Знак анх (анкх) представляет собой оберег, изображая пояс, завязанный узлом; его вариантом предположительно является и картуш, заключающий имена фараонов.
2 Действительно, фараон Эхнатон как раз и известен как учредитель культа единого бога Атона-Ра, чье имя и включено в состав его собственного имени (прежнее его имя Аменхотеп IV; Эхнатон буквально «дух, угодный Атону’). Этот культ сменил предшествующий культ многих богов, возглавляемых верховным богом Амоном-Ра, другим воплощением Ра. Вернул культ Амона-Ра фараон Тутанхамон.

Golden funerary mask of Tutankhamun.

Tutankhamun (alternately spelled with Tutenkh-, -amen, -amon), Egyptian twt-ˁnḫ-ı͗mn; 1341 BCE – 1323 BCE) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (ruled c.1333 BCE – 1323 BCE in the conventional chronology), during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. His original name, Tutankhaten, means «Living Image of Aten», while Tutankhamun means «Living Image of Amun». In hieroglyphs the name Tutankhamun was typically written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase to show appropriate reverence.[1] He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters. He was likely the 18th dynasty king ‘Rathotis’ who, according to Manetho, an ancient historian, had reigned for nine years — a figure which conforms with Flavius Josephus’s version of Manetho’s Epitome.[2]

The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of Tutankhamun’s nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage. It sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun’s burial mask remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world. In February 2010, the results of DNA tests confirmed that Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten (mummy KV55) and his sister/wife (mummy KV35YL), whose name is unknown but whose remains are positively identified as «The Younger Lady» mummy found in KV35.[3]

Life

Tutankhamun was born in 1341 BCE, the son of Akhenaten (formerly Amenhotep IV) and one of his sisters.[4] As a prince he was known as Tutankhaten.[5] He ascended to the throne in 1333 BCE, at the age of nine, taking the reign name of Tutankhaten.

When he became king, he married his half sister, Ankhesenepatan, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both stillborn.[3]

Reign

Given his age, the king must have had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb, the Vizier Ay, and Maya the «Overseer of the Treasury». Horemheb records that the king appointed him lord of the land as hereditary prince to maintain law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared.[6]

Domestic policy

In his third regnal year, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father’s reign. He ended the worship of the god, Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhenaten abandoned.[7] This is also when he changed his name to Tutankhamun.

As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Thebes and Karnak, where he dedicated a temple to Amun. Many monuments were erected, and an inscription on his tomb door declares the king had «spent his life in fashioning the images of the gods». The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet and Opet. His restoration stela says:

Foreign policy

The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb. Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His tomb contained body armour and folding stools appropriate for military campaigns. However, given his youth and physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk, historians speculate that he did not take part personally in these battles.[3][8]

Health and appearance

Tutankhamun was slight of build, and was roughly 170 centimetres tall. He had large front incisors and the overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged. He also had a pronounced dolichocephalic (elongated) skull, although it was within normal bounds and highly unlikely to have been pathological. Given the fact that many of the royal depictions of Akhenaten often featured such an elongated head, it is likely an exaggeration of a family trait, rather than a distinct abnormality. The research also showed that the Tutankhamun had «a slightly cleft palate»[9] and possibly a mild case of scoliosis.

Cause of death

There are no surviving records of Tutankhamun’s final days. The cause of Tutankhamun’s death has been the subject of considerable debate with several major studies being conducted in an effort to find the answer.

Although there is some speculation that Tutankhamun was assassinated, the general consensus is that his death was accidental. A CT scan taken in 2005 shows that he badly broke his leg shortly before his death and that it became infected. DNA analysis, conducted in 2010 showed the presence of malaria in his system. It is believed that these two conditions, combined, led to his death.[10]

Product of incest

According to an article in the September 2010 issue of National Geographic, King Tut was the product of incest and as such, suffered from several genetic defects which contributed to his early death.[11] For years, scientists have tried to unravel ancient clues as to why the boy king of Egypt, who reigned for 10 years, died at the age of 19. Several theories have been put forth. As stated above, one was that he was killed by a blow to the head. Another put the blame on a broken leg. As recently as June 2010, German scientists said they believe there is evidence he died of sickle cell disease.

The research was conducted by archaeologists, radiologists, and geneticists who started performing CT scans on Tutankhamun five years ago and found that he was not killed by a blow to the head, as previously though. That same team began doing DNA research on Tut’s mummy, as well as the mummified remains of other members of his family, in 2008. DNA finally put to rest questions about Tut’s lineage, proving that his father was Akhenaten and that his mother was not one of Akhenaten’s known wives. His mother was one of Akhenaten’s five sisters, although it is not known which one. New CT images discovered congenital flaws, which are more common among the children of incest. Siblings are more likely to pass on twin copies of harmful genes, which is why children of incest more commonly manifest genetic defects.[12] It is suspected he also had a partially cleft palate, another congenital defect.[13]

The team was able to establish with a probability of better than 99.99 percent that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.[14] The DNA of the so-called Younger Lady (KV35YL), found lying beside Queen Tiye in the alcove of KV35, matched that of the boy king. Her DNA proved that, like Akhenaten, she was the daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye; thus, Tut’s parents were brother & sister.[15] Queen Tiye held much political influence at court and acted as an adviser to her son after the death of her husband. There has been speculation that her eldest son Prince Tuthmose was in fact Moses who led the Israelites into the Promised Land.[16]

While the data are still incomplete, the study suggests that one of the mummified fetuses found in Tut’s tomb is the daughter of Tutankhamun himself, and the other fetus is probably his child as well. So far only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained.[17] One of them, KV21A, may well be the infants’ mother and thus, Tutankhamun’s wife, Ankhesenamun. It is known from history that she was the daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, and thus likely her husband’s half sister. Another consequence of inbreeding can be children whose genetic defects do not allow them to be brought to term.

The research team consisted of Egyptian scientists Yehia Gad and Somaia Ismail from the National Research Center in Cairo. The CT scans were conducted under the direction of Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem of the Faculty of Medicine at Cairo University. Three international experts served as consultants: Carsten Pusch of the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Germany; Albert Zink of the EURAC-Institute for Mummies and the Iceman in Bolzano, Italy[18]; and Paul Gostner of the Central Hospital Bolzano.[19]

As stated above, the team discovered DNA from several strains of a parasite proving he was infected with the most severe strain of malaria several times in his short life. Malaria can trigger circulatory shock or cause a fatal immune response in the body, either of which can lead to death. And while Tut did suffer from a bone disease which was crippling, it would not have been fatal. “Perhaps he struggled against others [congenital flaws] until a severe bout of malaria or a leg broken in an accident added one strain too many to a body that could no longer carry the load,” wrote Zahi Hawass, archeologist and head of Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity involved in the research.

Tomb

Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was small relative to his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, so that his mummy was buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary seventy days between death and burial.[20]

King Tutankhamun still rests in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. November 4, 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter’s discovery, the 19-year-old pharaoh went on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.[21]

Discovery of tomb

Tutankhamun seems to have faded from public consciousness in Ancient Egypt within a short time after his death, and he remained virtually unknown until the 1920s. His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, it seems clear that these robberies took place within several months at most of the initial burial. Eventually the location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by stone chips from subsequent tombs, either dumped there or washed there by floods. In the years that followed, some huts for workers were built over the tomb entrance, clearly not knowing what lay beneath. When at the end of the twentieth dynasty the Valley of the Kings burials were systematically dismantled, the burial of Tutankhamun was overlooked, presumably because knowledge of it had been lost and his name may have been forgotten.

Exhibitions

Relics from Tutankhamun’s tomb are among the most traveled artifacts in the world. They have been to many countries, but probably the best-known exhibition tour was The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour, which ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from March 30 until September 30, 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors came to see the exhibition, some queuing for up to eight hours and it was the most popular exhibition in the Museum’s history. The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the USA, USSR, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from November 17, 1976, through April 15, 1979. More than eight million attended.

In 2004, the tour of Tutankhamun funerary objects entitled «Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter» made up of fifty artifacts from Tutenkhamun’s tomb and seventy funerary goods from other 18th Dynasty tombs began in Basle, Switzerland, went to Bonn Germany, the second leg of the tour, and from there toured the United States. The exhibition returned to Europe and to London. The European tour was organised by the Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), and the Egyptian Museum in cooperation with the Antikenmuseum Basel and Sammlung Ludwig. Deutsche Telekom sponsored the Bonn exhibition.[22]

In 2005, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched the U.S. tour of the Tutenkahamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects this time called «Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs». It was expected to draw more than three million people.[23]

The exhibition started in Los Angeles, California, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Chicago and Philadelphia. The exhibition then moved to London[24] before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. Subsequent events have propelled an encore of the exhibition in the United States, beginning with the Dallas Museum of Art in October 2008 which hosted the exhibition until May 2009.[25] The tour will continued to other U.S. cities.[26] After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, to be followed the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.[27]

The exhibition includes eighty exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun’s immediate predecessors in the Eighteenth dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun’s burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun’s tomb. The exhibition does not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972-1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has determined that the mask is too fragile to withstand travel and will never again leave the country.[28]

A separate exhibition called «Tutankhamun and the World of the Pharaohs» began at the Ethnological Museum in Vienna from March 9 to September 28, 2008 showing a further 140 treasures from the tomb. This exhibition continued to Atlanta and the Indianapolis Children’s Museum.

Curse

For many years, rumors of a «Curse of the Pharaohs» (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had first entered the tomb. However, a recent study of journals and death records indicates no statistical difference between the age of death of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not. Indeed, most lived past seventy.

Significance

Tutankhamun was nine years old when he became pharaoh and reigned for approximately ten years. In historical terms, Tutankhamun’s significance stems from his rejection of the radical religious innovations introduced by his predecessor and father, Akhenaten.[29] Secondly, his tomb in the Valley of the Kings was discovered by Carter almost completely intact — the most complete ancient Egyptian royal tomb ever found. As Tutankhamun began his reign at such an early age, his vizier and eventual successor Ay was probably making most of the important political decisions during Tutankhamun’s reign.

Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped as a god and honored with a cult-like following in his own lifetime.[30] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by wrongdoing. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.[31]

In popular culture

If Tutankhamun is the world’s best known pharaoh, it is partly because his tomb is among the best preserved, and his image and associated artifacts the most-exhibited. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter’s The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, «The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt’s kings has become in death the most renowned.» As a side effect, the interest in this tomb and its alleged «curse» led to horror movies featuring a vengeful mummy.

Film and television

  • We Want Our Mummy, a 1939 film by the Three Stooges. In it, the slapstick comedy trio explore the tomb of the midget King Rutentuten (pronounced «rootin’-tootin'») and his Queen, Hotsy Totsy. A decade later, they were crooked used-chariot salesmen in Mummy’s Dummies, in which they ultimately assist a different King Rootentootin (Vernon Dent) with a toothache.
  • King Tut, played by Victor Buono, was a villain on the Batman TV series which aired from 1966 to 1968. Mild-mannered Egyptologist William Omaha McElroy, after suffering a concussion, came to believe he was the reincarnation of Tutankhamun. His response to this knowledge was to embark upon a crime spree that required him to fight against the «Caped Crusaders», Batman and Robin.
  • The Discovery Kids animated series Tutenstein stars a fictional mummy based on Tutankhamun, named Tutankhensetamun and nicknamed Tutenstein in his afterlife. He is depicted as a lazy and spoiled 10-year-old mummy boy who must guard a magical artifact called the Scepter of Was from the evil Egyptian god of Set.
  • La Reine Soleil (2007 animated film by Philippe Leclerc), features Akhenaten, Tutankhaten (later Tutankhamun), Akhesa (Ankhesenepaten, later Ankhesenamun), Nefertiti, and Horemheb in a complex struggle pitting the priests of Amun against Akhenaten’s intolerant monotheism.
  • The first episode of the 2005 BBC series Egypt: Rediscovering a Lost World focuses on the life and death of Tutankhamun and the serendipitous discover of his tomb.

Other

  • «King Tut», a whimsical 1978 song by (American comedian) «Steve Martin and the Toot Uncommons» (a backup group consisting of members of the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band).
  • The mummy of Tutankhamun is depicted as a villain in Raj Comics’s Nagraj, a Hindi superhero comicbook. In this series, his mask is the source of his power.
  • The video game Sphinx and the Cursed Mummy features a fictional representation of Prince Tutankhamun. Tutankhamun is the victim of an unnamed magical ritual which results in almost instantaneous mummification and extraction of what appears to be his «life force». In the instruction manual, the Mummy is described as young, inexperienced and naive.

Names

At the reintroduction of traditional religious practice, Tutankaten’s name changed. It is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉmn ḥq3-ỉwnw-šmˁ, and often realized as Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema, meaning «Living image of Amun, ruler of Upper Heliopolis». On his ascension to the throne, Tutankhamun took a praenomen. This is translated as nb-ḫprw-rˁ, and realized as Nebkheperure, meaning «Lord of the forms of Ra». The name Nibhurrereya in the Amarna letters may be a variation of this praenomen.

References

  1. Zauzich, Karl-Theodor (1992). Hieroglyphs Without Mystery. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9780292798045. http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/books/zauhie.html.
  2. «Manetho’s King List». http://www.phouka.com/pharaoh/egypt/history/KLManetho.html.
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 Hawass, Zahi et al. «Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family» The Journal of the American Medical Association, February 17, 2010. Vol 303, No. 7 p.638-647
  4. Hawass, Zahi et al. «Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family» The Journal of the American Medical Association p.640-641
  5. Jacobus van Dijk. «The Death of Meketaten» (PDF). http://history.memphis.edu/murnane/Van%20Dijk.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
  6. Booth p. 86-87
  7. Erik Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 0801487250
  8. Booth p. 129-130
  9. Handwerk, Brian (March 8, 2005). «King Tut Not Murdered Violently, CT Scans Show». National Geographic News. p. 2. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/03/0308_050308_kingtutmurder.html. Retrieved 2006-08-05.
  10. Roberts, Michelle (2010-02-16). «‘Malaria’ killed King Tutankhamun». BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8516425.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  11. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text
  12. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1251731/King-Tutankhamuns-incestuous-family-revealed.html
  13. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/8
  14. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/5
  15. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/7
  16. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1251731/King-Tutankhamuns-incestuous-family-revealed.html
  17. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/9
  18. http://www.eurac.edu/en/research/institutes/iceman/pages/default.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1
  19. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/3
  20. «The Golden Age of Tutankhamun: Divine Might and Splendour in the New Kingdom«, Zahi Hawass, p. 61, American University in Cairo Press, 2004, ISBN 9774248368
  21. Michael McCarthy (2007-10-05). «3,000 years old: the face of Tutankhamun». London: The Independent. http://news.independent.co.uk/sci_tech/article3129650.ece.
  22. «Al-Ahram Weekly | Heritage | Under Tut’s spell». Weekly.ahram.org.eg. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/716/he1.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-18.

  23. «King Tut exhibition. Tutankhamun & the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. Treasures from the Valley of the Kings». Arts and Exhibitions International. http://www.kingtut.org/exhibition.htm. Retrieved 2006-08-05.
  24. Return of the King (Times Online)[dead link]
  25. «Dallas Museum of Art Website». Dallasmuseumofart.org. http://dallasmuseumofart.org/Dallas_Museum_of_Art/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
  26. Associated Press, «Tut Exhibit to Return to US Next Year»
  27. «Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs | King Tut Returns to San Francisco, June 27, 2009–March 28, 2010». Famsf.org. http://www.famsf.org/tut/. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
  28. Jenny Booth (2005-01-06). «CT scan may solve Tutankhamun death riddle». London: The Times. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article409075.ece?token=null&offset=12.
  29. Aude Gros de Beler, Tutankhamun, foreword Aly Maher Sayed, Moliere, ISBN 2-84790-210-4
  30. «Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology», Editor Donald B. Redford, p. 85, Berkley, ISBN 0-425-19096-x
  31. «The Boy Behind the Mask», Charlotte Booth, p. 120, Oneworld, 2007, ISBN 978-1-85168-544-8

Further reading

  • Andritsos, John. Social Studies of ancient Egypt: Tutankhamun. Australia 2006
  • Booth, Charlotte. The Boy Behind the Mask«, Oneworld, ISBN 978-1-85168-544-8
  • Brier, Bob. The Murder of Tutankhamun: A True Story. Putnam Adult, April 13, 1998, ISBN 0425166899 (paperback)/ISBN 0-399-14383-1 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-613-28967-6 (School & Library Binding)
  • Carter, Howard and Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun. Courier Dover Publications, June 1, 1977, ISBN 0-486-23500-9 The semi-popular account of the discovery and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible
  • Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane. Sarwat Okasha (Preface), Tutankhamun: Life and Death of a Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0-8212-0151-4 (1976 reprint, hardcover) /ISBN 0-14-011665-6 (1990 reprint, paperback)
  • Edwards, I.E.S., Treasures of Tutankhamun. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976, ISBN 0-345-27349-4 (paperback)/ISBN 0-670-72723-7 (hardcover)
  • Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The Mummy of Tutankhamun: the CT Scan Report, as printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005.
  • Haag, Michael. The Rough Guide to Tutankhamun: The King: The Treasure: The Dynasty. London 2005. ISBN 1-84353-554-8.
  • Hoving, Thomas. The search for Tutankhamun: The untold story of adventure and intrigue surrounding the greatest modern archeological find. New York: Simon & Schuster, October 15, 1978, ISBN 0-671-24305-5 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-8154-1186-3 (paperback) This book details a number of interesting anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb
  • James, T. G. H. Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, September 1, 2000, ISBN 1-58663-032-6 (hardcover) A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects
  • Neubert, Otto. Tutankhamun and the Valley of the Kings. London: Granada Publishing Limited, 1972, ISBN 583-12141-1 (paperback) First hand account of the discovery of the Tomb
  • Reeeves, C. Nicholas. The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London: Thames & Hudson, November 1, 1990, ISBN 0-500-05058-9 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paperback) Fully covers the complete contents of his tomb
  • Rossi, Renzo. Tutankhamun. Cincinnati (Ohio) 2007 ISBN 978-0-7153-2763-0,

External links

  • Grim secrets of Pharaoh’s city BBC News
  • Tutankhamun and the Age of the Golden Pharaohs website
  • The Independent, October 20, 2007: «A 3,000-year-old mystery is finally solved: Tutankhamun died in a hunting accident». See also video at The-Maker.net
  • British Museum Tutankhamun highlight
  • King Tut: Ancient Egypt Unveiled — slideshow by Life magazine

Golden funerary mask of Tutankhamun.

Tutankhamun (alternately spelled with Tutenkh-, -amen, -amon), Egyptian twt-ˁnḫ-ı͗mn; 1341 BCE – 1323 BCE) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (ruled c.1333 BCE – 1323 BCE in the conventional chronology), during the period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. His original name, Tutankhaten, means «Living Image of Aten», while Tutankhamun means «Living Image of Amun». In hieroglyphs the name Tutankhamun was typically written Amen-tut-ankh, because of a scribal custom that placed a divine name at the beginning of a phrase to show appropriate reverence.[1] He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters. He was likely the 18th dynasty king ‘Rathotis’ who, according to Manetho, an ancient historian, had reigned for nine years — a figure which conforms with Flavius Josephus’s version of Manetho’s Epitome.[2]

The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of Tutankhamun’s nearly intact tomb received worldwide press coverage. It sparked a renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun’s burial mask remains the popular symbol. Exhibits of artifacts from his tomb have toured the world. In February 2010, the results of DNA tests confirmed that Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten (mummy KV55) and his sister/wife (mummy KV35YL), whose name is unknown but whose remains are positively identified as «The Younger Lady» mummy found in KV35.[3]

Life

Tutankhamun was born in 1341 BCE, the son of Akhenaten (formerly Amenhotep IV) and one of his sisters.[4] As a prince he was known as Tutankhaten.[5] He ascended to the throne in 1333 BCE, at the age of nine, taking the reign name of Tutankhaten.

When he became king, he married his half sister, Ankhesenepatan, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun. They had two daughters, both stillborn.[3]

Reign

Given his age, the king must have had very powerful advisers, presumably including General Horemheb, the Vizier Ay, and Maya the «Overseer of the Treasury». Horemheb records that the king appointed him lord of the land as hereditary prince to maintain law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared.[6]

Domestic policy

In his third regnal year, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father’s reign. He ended the worship of the god, Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhenaten abandoned.[7] This is also when he changed his name to Tutankhamun.

As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Thebes and Karnak, where he dedicated a temple to Amun. Many monuments were erected, and an inscription on his tomb door declares the king had «spent his life in fashioning the images of the gods». The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet and Opet. His restoration stela says:

Foreign policy

The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb. Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His tomb contained body armour and folding stools appropriate for military campaigns. However, given his youth and physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk, historians speculate that he did not take part personally in these battles.[3][8]

Health and appearance

Tutankhamun was slight of build, and was roughly 170 centimetres tall. He had large front incisors and the overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged. He also had a pronounced dolichocephalic (elongated) skull, although it was within normal bounds and highly unlikely to have been pathological. Given the fact that many of the royal depictions of Akhenaten often featured such an elongated head, it is likely an exaggeration of a family trait, rather than a distinct abnormality. The research also showed that the Tutankhamun had «a slightly cleft palate»[9] and possibly a mild case of scoliosis.

Cause of death

There are no surviving records of Tutankhamun’s final days. The cause of Tutankhamun’s death has been the subject of considerable debate with several major studies being conducted in an effort to find the answer.

Although there is some speculation that Tutankhamun was assassinated, the general consensus is that his death was accidental. A CT scan taken in 2005 shows that he badly broke his leg shortly before his death and that it became infected. DNA analysis, conducted in 2010 showed the presence of malaria in his system. It is believed that these two conditions, combined, led to his death.[10]

Product of incest

According to an article in the September 2010 issue of National Geographic, King Tut was the product of incest and as such, suffered from several genetic defects which contributed to his early death.[11] For years, scientists have tried to unravel ancient clues as to why the boy king of Egypt, who reigned for 10 years, died at the age of 19. Several theories have been put forth. As stated above, one was that he was killed by a blow to the head. Another put the blame on a broken leg. As recently as June 2010, German scientists said they believe there is evidence he died of sickle cell disease.

The research was conducted by archaeologists, radiologists, and geneticists who started performing CT scans on Tutankhamun five years ago and found that he was not killed by a blow to the head, as previously though. That same team began doing DNA research on Tut’s mummy, as well as the mummified remains of other members of his family, in 2008. DNA finally put to rest questions about Tut’s lineage, proving that his father was Akhenaten and that his mother was not one of Akhenaten’s known wives. His mother was one of Akhenaten’s five sisters, although it is not known which one. New CT images discovered congenital flaws, which are more common among the children of incest. Siblings are more likely to pass on twin copies of harmful genes, which is why children of incest more commonly manifest genetic defects.[12] It is suspected he also had a partially cleft palate, another congenital defect.[13]

The team was able to establish with a probability of better than 99.99 percent that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.[14] The DNA of the so-called Younger Lady (KV35YL), found lying beside Queen Tiye in the alcove of KV35, matched that of the boy king. Her DNA proved that, like Akhenaten, she was the daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye; thus, Tut’s parents were brother & sister.[15] Queen Tiye held much political influence at court and acted as an adviser to her son after the death of her husband. There has been speculation that her eldest son Prince Tuthmose was in fact Moses who led the Israelites into the Promised Land.[16]

While the data are still incomplete, the study suggests that one of the mummified fetuses found in Tut’s tomb is the daughter of Tutankhamun himself, and the other fetus is probably his child as well. So far only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained.[17] One of them, KV21A, may well be the infants’ mother and thus, Tutankhamun’s wife, Ankhesenamun. It is known from history that she was the daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, and thus likely her husband’s half sister. Another consequence of inbreeding can be children whose genetic defects do not allow them to be brought to term.

The research team consisted of Egyptian scientists Yehia Gad and Somaia Ismail from the National Research Center in Cairo. The CT scans were conducted under the direction of Ashraf Selim and Sahar Saleem of the Faculty of Medicine at Cairo University. Three international experts served as consultants: Carsten Pusch of the Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Germany; Albert Zink of the EURAC-Institute for Mummies and the Iceman in Bolzano, Italy[18]; and Paul Gostner of the Central Hospital Bolzano.[19]

As stated above, the team discovered DNA from several strains of a parasite proving he was infected with the most severe strain of malaria several times in his short life. Malaria can trigger circulatory shock or cause a fatal immune response in the body, either of which can lead to death. And while Tut did suffer from a bone disease which was crippling, it would not have been fatal. “Perhaps he struggled against others [congenital flaws] until a severe bout of malaria or a leg broken in an accident added one strain too many to a body that could no longer carry the load,” wrote Zahi Hawass, archeologist and head of Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquity involved in the research.

Tomb

Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was small relative to his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, so that his mummy was buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary seventy days between death and burial.[20]

King Tutankhamun still rests in his tomb in the Valley of the Kings. November 4, 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter’s discovery, the 19-year-old pharaoh went on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.[21]

Discovery of tomb

Tutankhamun seems to have faded from public consciousness in Ancient Egypt within a short time after his death, and he remained virtually unknown until the 1920s. His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, it seems clear that these robberies took place within several months at most of the initial burial. Eventually the location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by stone chips from subsequent tombs, either dumped there or washed there by floods. In the years that followed, some huts for workers were built over the tomb entrance, clearly not knowing what lay beneath. When at the end of the twentieth dynasty the Valley of the Kings burials were systematically dismantled, the burial of Tutankhamun was overlooked, presumably because knowledge of it had been lost and his name may have been forgotten.

Exhibitions

Relics from Tutankhamun’s tomb are among the most traveled artifacts in the world. They have been to many countries, but probably the best-known exhibition tour was The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour, which ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from March 30 until September 30, 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors came to see the exhibition, some queuing for up to eight hours and it was the most popular exhibition in the Museum’s history. The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the USA, USSR, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from November 17, 1976, through April 15, 1979. More than eight million attended.

In 2004, the tour of Tutankhamun funerary objects entitled «Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter» made up of fifty artifacts from Tutenkhamun’s tomb and seventy funerary goods from other 18th Dynasty tombs began in Basle, Switzerland, went to Bonn Germany, the second leg of the tour, and from there toured the United States. The exhibition returned to Europe and to London. The European tour was organised by the Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany, the Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), and the Egyptian Museum in cooperation with the Antikenmuseum Basel and Sammlung Ludwig. Deutsche Telekom sponsored the Bonn exhibition.[22]

In 2005, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched the U.S. tour of the Tutenkahamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects this time called «Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs». It was expected to draw more than three million people.[23]

The exhibition started in Los Angeles, California, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Florida, Chicago and Philadelphia. The exhibition then moved to London[24] before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. Subsequent events have propelled an encore of the exhibition in the United States, beginning with the Dallas Museum of Art in October 2008 which hosted the exhibition until May 2009.[25] The tour will continued to other U.S. cities.[26] After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, to be followed the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.[27]

The exhibition includes eighty exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun’s immediate predecessors in the Eighteenth dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun’s burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun’s tomb. The exhibition does not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972-1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has determined that the mask is too fragile to withstand travel and will never again leave the country.[28]

A separate exhibition called «Tutankhamun and the World of the Pharaohs» began at the Ethnological Museum in Vienna from March 9 to September 28, 2008 showing a further 140 treasures from the tomb. This exhibition continued to Atlanta and the Indianapolis Children’s Museum.

Curse

For many years, rumors of a «Curse of the Pharaohs» (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had first entered the tomb. However, a recent study of journals and death records indicates no statistical difference between the age of death of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not. Indeed, most lived past seventy.

Significance

Tutankhamun was nine years old when he became pharaoh and reigned for approximately ten years. In historical terms, Tutankhamun’s significance stems from his rejection of the radical religious innovations introduced by his predecessor and father, Akhenaten.[29] Secondly, his tomb in the Valley of the Kings was discovered by Carter almost completely intact — the most complete ancient Egyptian royal tomb ever found. As Tutankhamun began his reign at such an early age, his vizier and eventual successor Ay was probably making most of the important political decisions during Tutankhamun’s reign.

Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped as a god and honored with a cult-like following in his own lifetime.[30] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by wrongdoing. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.[31]

In popular culture

If Tutankhamun is the world’s best known pharaoh, it is partly because his tomb is among the best preserved, and his image and associated artifacts the most-exhibited. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter’s The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, «The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt’s kings has become in death the most renowned.» As a side effect, the interest in this tomb and its alleged «curse» led to horror movies featuring a vengeful mummy.

Film and television

  • We Want Our Mummy, a 1939 film by the Three Stooges. In it, the slapstick comedy trio explore the tomb of the midget King Rutentuten (pronounced «rootin’-tootin'») and his Queen, Hotsy Totsy. A decade later, they were crooked used-chariot salesmen in Mummy’s Dummies, in which they ultimately assist a different King Rootentootin (Vernon Dent) with a toothache.
  • King Tut, played by Victor Buono, was a villain on the Batman TV series which aired from 1966 to 1968. Mild-mannered Egyptologist William Omaha McElroy, after suffering a concussion, came to believe he was the reincarnation of Tutankhamun. His response to this knowledge was to embark upon a crime spree that required him to fight against the «Caped Crusaders», Batman and Robin.
  • The Discovery Kids animated series Tutenstein stars a fictional mummy based on Tutankhamun, named Tutankhensetamun and nicknamed Tutenstein in his afterlife. He is depicted as a lazy and spoiled 10-year-old mummy boy who must guard a magical artifact called the Scepter of Was from the evil Egyptian god of Set.
  • La Reine Soleil (2007 animated film by Philippe Leclerc), features Akhenaten, Tutankhaten (later Tutankhamun), Akhesa (Ankhesenepaten, later Ankhesenamun), Nefertiti, and Horemheb in a complex struggle pitting the priests of Amun against Akhenaten’s intolerant monotheism.
  • The first episode of the 2005 BBC series Egypt: Rediscovering a Lost World focuses on the life and death of Tutankhamun and the serendipitous discover of his tomb.

Other

  • «King Tut», a whimsical 1978 song by (American comedian) «Steve Martin and the Toot Uncommons» (a backup group consisting of members of the Nitty Gritty Dirt Band).
  • The mummy of Tutankhamun is depicted as a villain in Raj Comics’s Nagraj, a Hindi superhero comicbook. In this series, his mask is the source of his power.
  • The video game Sphinx and the Cursed Mummy features a fictional representation of Prince Tutankhamun. Tutankhamun is the victim of an unnamed magical ritual which results in almost instantaneous mummification and extraction of what appears to be his «life force». In the instruction manual, the Mummy is described as young, inexperienced and naive.

Names

At the reintroduction of traditional religious practice, Tutankaten’s name changed. It is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉmn ḥq3-ỉwnw-šmˁ, and often realized as Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema, meaning «Living image of Amun, ruler of Upper Heliopolis». On his ascension to the throne, Tutankhamun took a praenomen. This is translated as nb-ḫprw-rˁ, and realized as Nebkheperure, meaning «Lord of the forms of Ra». The name Nibhurrereya in the Amarna letters may be a variation of this praenomen.

References

  1. Zauzich, Karl-Theodor (1992). Hieroglyphs Without Mystery. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 30–31. ISBN 9780292798045. http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/books/zauhie.html.
  2. «Manetho’s King List». http://www.phouka.com/pharaoh/egypt/history/KLManetho.html.
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 Hawass, Zahi et al. «Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family» The Journal of the American Medical Association, February 17, 2010. Vol 303, No. 7 p.638-647
  4. Hawass, Zahi et al. «Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family» The Journal of the American Medical Association p.640-641
  5. Jacobus van Dijk. «The Death of Meketaten» (PDF). http://history.memphis.edu/murnane/Van%20Dijk.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
  6. Booth p. 86-87
  7. Erik Hornung, Akhenaten and the Religion of Light, Translated by David Lorton, Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001, ISBN 0801487250
  8. Booth p. 129-130
  9. Handwerk, Brian (March 8, 2005). «King Tut Not Murdered Violently, CT Scans Show». National Geographic News. p. 2. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/03/0308_050308_kingtutmurder.html. Retrieved 2006-08-05.
  10. Roberts, Michelle (2010-02-16). «‘Malaria’ killed King Tutankhamun». BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/8516425.stm. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
  11. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text
  12. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1251731/King-Tutankhamuns-incestuous-family-revealed.html
  13. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/8
  14. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/5
  15. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/7
  16. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-1251731/King-Tutankhamuns-incestuous-family-revealed.html
  17. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/9
  18. http://www.eurac.edu/en/research/institutes/iceman/pages/default.aspx?AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1
  19. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2010/09/tut-dna/hawass-text/3
  20. «The Golden Age of Tutankhamun: Divine Might and Splendour in the New Kingdom«, Zahi Hawass, p. 61, American University in Cairo Press, 2004, ISBN 9774248368
  21. Michael McCarthy (2007-10-05). «3,000 years old: the face of Tutankhamun». London: The Independent. http://news.independent.co.uk/sci_tech/article3129650.ece.
  22. «Al-Ahram Weekly | Heritage | Under Tut’s spell». Weekly.ahram.org.eg. http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/716/he1.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-18.

  23. «King Tut exhibition. Tutankhamun & the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. Treasures from the Valley of the Kings». Arts and Exhibitions International. http://www.kingtut.org/exhibition.htm. Retrieved 2006-08-05.
  24. Return of the King (Times Online)[dead link]
  25. «Dallas Museum of Art Website». Dallasmuseumofart.org. http://dallasmuseumofart.org/Dallas_Museum_of_Art/index.htm. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
  26. Associated Press, «Tut Exhibit to Return to US Next Year»
  27. «Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs | King Tut Returns to San Francisco, June 27, 2009–March 28, 2010». Famsf.org. http://www.famsf.org/tut/. Retrieved 2009-07-18.
  28. Jenny Booth (2005-01-06). «CT scan may solve Tutankhamun death riddle». London: The Times. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article409075.ece?token=null&offset=12.
  29. Aude Gros de Beler, Tutankhamun, foreword Aly Maher Sayed, Moliere, ISBN 2-84790-210-4
  30. «Oxford Guide: Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology», Editor Donald B. Redford, p. 85, Berkley, ISBN 0-425-19096-x
  31. «The Boy Behind the Mask», Charlotte Booth, p. 120, Oneworld, 2007, ISBN 978-1-85168-544-8

Further reading

  • Andritsos, John. Social Studies of ancient Egypt: Tutankhamun. Australia 2006
  • Booth, Charlotte. The Boy Behind the Mask«, Oneworld, ISBN 978-1-85168-544-8
  • Brier, Bob. The Murder of Tutankhamun: A True Story. Putnam Adult, April 13, 1998, ISBN 0425166899 (paperback)/ISBN 0-399-14383-1 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-613-28967-6 (School & Library Binding)
  • Carter, Howard and Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun. Courier Dover Publications, June 1, 1977, ISBN 0-486-23500-9 The semi-popular account of the discovery and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible
  • Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane. Sarwat Okasha (Preface), Tutankhamun: Life and Death of a Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0-8212-0151-4 (1976 reprint, hardcover) /ISBN 0-14-011665-6 (1990 reprint, paperback)
  • Edwards, I.E.S., Treasures of Tutankhamun. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976, ISBN 0-345-27349-4 (paperback)/ISBN 0-670-72723-7 (hardcover)
  • Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The Mummy of Tutankhamun: the CT Scan Report, as printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005.
  • Haag, Michael. The Rough Guide to Tutankhamun: The King: The Treasure: The Dynasty. London 2005. ISBN 1-84353-554-8.
  • Hoving, Thomas. The search for Tutankhamun: The untold story of adventure and intrigue surrounding the greatest modern archeological find. New York: Simon & Schuster, October 15, 1978, ISBN 0-671-24305-5 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-8154-1186-3 (paperback) This book details a number of interesting anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb
  • James, T. G. H. Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, September 1, 2000, ISBN 1-58663-032-6 (hardcover) A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects
  • Neubert, Otto. Tutankhamun and the Valley of the Kings. London: Granada Publishing Limited, 1972, ISBN 583-12141-1 (paperback) First hand account of the discovery of the Tomb
  • Reeeves, C. Nicholas. The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London: Thames & Hudson, November 1, 1990, ISBN 0-500-05058-9 (hardcover)/ISBN 0-500-27810-5 (paperback) Fully covers the complete contents of his tomb
  • Rossi, Renzo. Tutankhamun. Cincinnati (Ohio) 2007 ISBN 978-0-7153-2763-0,

External links

  • Grim secrets of Pharaoh’s city BBC News
  • Tutankhamun and the Age of the Golden Pharaohs website
  • The Independent, October 20, 2007: «A 3,000-year-old mystery is finally solved: Tutankhamun died in a hunting accident». See also video at The-Maker.net
  • British Museum Tutankhamun highlight
  • King Tut: Ancient Egypt Unveiled — slideshow by Life magazine

Новый взгляд на древнюю историю Египта и символы маски Тутанхамона

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Об авторе: Ткачёв Александр – родился в 1957 году, к.э.н. (защищался в МГУ на кафедре Гавриила Попова), последние 10 лет работал в ОАО «НК»Роснефть», сейчас на пенсии. В 2014 г. издал книгу «Тайны древней истории».

Памяти Говарда Картера (9 мая 1874 г.- 2 марта 1939 г.)

Открытие гробницы Тутанхамона в «Долине царей» возле города Фивы (современный Луксор) — результат длительных поисков английского археолога Говарда Картера (Howard Carter). Вскрытие могилы произошло 26 ноября 1922 года и этот факт был признан крупнейшим открытием в области древней археологии. С тех пор ученые — египтологи выдвинули ряд гипотез по поводу происхождения фараона Тутанхамона и времени его правления. Об этих гипотезах можно прочитать в интернете, но я не буду на них останавливаться, поскольку новые исторические и этимологические данные не подтверждают ни одной из них.

Кем же был столь пышно похороненный фараон Египта? Чтобы разобраться в этом нужны были дополнительные данные по древней истории Египта. Такие данные появились в результате частичной расшифровки текстов древних еврейских рукописей, сделанных мной в 2007 году.

Оказалось, что ряд древних египетских символов, относящихся к иероглифическому письму не могут быть прочитаны с помощью открытий, сделанных французским ученым Франсуа Шампольоном (Jean Francois Champollion 1790-1832), или с помощью теории среднеегипетской грамматики английского лингвиста Алана Гардинера (Alan Henderson Gardiner 1879-1963). Большая часть иероглифов, на которых были сделаны надписи в могилах Луксора, относятся к периоду истории Египта до 1500 года до н.э., их древние значения были уже утеряны ко времени исследований Гардинера и Шампольона.

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Что же дают новые исследования древних египетских иероглифов? Расшифровывая с помощью «Розетского камня» картуши Птолемея и Клеопатры, Франсуа Шампольон установил, что египетские символы могут означать буквы. В частности, изображение ястреба обозначало букву «А», а изображение льва — букву «Л». В древних же картушах писались не буквы, а родовые знаки фамилий древних царей.

Символика картуша

До сих пор было неизвестно зачем надписи делались в картушах. Согласно новых исследований древний картуш был брачным символом соединения двух царских родов. «Овал» картуша означал женщину, вступавшую в брак, «палка» означала мужчину, вступавшего в брак. Веревка, которая на древних изображениях связывала «палку» и «овал», показывала их «связывание» брачными узами. В «овале» картуша иероглифами записывалось родовое происхождение мужчины и женщины. Эта запись была очень важна, поскольку родовое происхождение царской четы указывало на их место в «табеле о рангах» царей Египта.

Из тайнописей еврейских рукописей удалось выяснить, что самым древним и самым знатным правящим родом в древности был род фараонов с фамилией Ра (Солнцевы). Род имел свою символику в виде солнца. Мальчики рода носили на короне изображение змеи-кобры с солнцем на голове. Вторым по значению после рода Ра шел род царей Кара, он обозначался символом в виде черного жука, которого в Египте времен Птолемеев называли скарабеем, а в глубокой древности называли «Кара». Третьим по положению в «табеле о рангах» древних правителей Египта был род Мата, он изображался в картуше символом из трех сплетенных в пучок женских кос и на вид напоминал букву «М». Ошибочно этот иероглиф был прочтен учеными как Маат. Род Мата (Маат) шел по материнской линии от первой царицы Египта, и пока точно не установлено как передавалась эта фамилия. Построение родовых символов в картуше показывало из какого рода вышел царь Египта и каково было его положение в иерархии египетских царей.

Фараон – глава царей Египта

Ко времени завоевания греками Египта слово фараон означало титул местных царей, но до 1500 года до н.э. слово фараон означало высшее родовое положение правителя династии Ра (Солнцевых). Сегодня считают, что этимология слова «фараон» означает «дом Ра», на самом деле слово «фараон» является словосочетанием древнего слогового языка, описанного кратко в тайнописях еврейских рукописей. В этом слове три отдельных слоговых слова, которые читаются следующим образом:

Фа-фамилия

Ра- Солнцев

Он- первый

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В древнем Египте фараоном считался только главный правитель — первенец рода Ра (Солнцевых). Трон фараона, правителя всей империи династии Солнцевых(Ра), после смерти отца мог занять только первый сын фараона, что, собственно, и было записано в названии титула. Остальные дети фараона, коих было очень много, фамилию Ра (Солнцев) и титул «фараон» не наследовали. Они образовывали династии рангом пониже и назывались царями. Так образовывались роды царей: Кара, Мата, Горов, Амонов, Атонов и т.д. Мальчики, родившиеся четвертыми или пятыми в семье, могли вообще не получить титула и были в прислуге у старших или занимали военные должности при дворе фараона. Их родословная часто не записывалась.

 Считают, что фараоны древнего Египта были язычниками и солнцепоклонниками и от того так много изображений солнца в могильниках царей. На самом деле древней верой империи Солнцевых был монотеизм, получивший свое более позднее отражение в Иудаизме и Исламе.

Примерно за 1200 лет до прихода греков на север Африки с исторической сцены исчез основной правитель рода Ра – фараон. Его титул стали присваивать цари других родовых династий, родственных и не родственных роду Ра. Многочисленные войны и революции смешали роды, монотеисты египтяне превратились в идолопоклонников, а слово фараон превратилось просто в титул. На земле появились новые царские династии. Одну из таких династий назвали Хан, что на древнем слоговом языке означало «Небо». Мальчик, первым получивший такую фамилию, стал фактически основателем династии китайских императоров.

Династии правителей Хан и Амон

В картушах Египта династия Хан обозначалась иероглифом в виде креста с надутым над крестом шаром. Ученые прочли этот иероглиф как «Анх», допустив маленькую неточность в порядке записи букв. В верхнем Египте после гибели основной династии Ра (Солнцевых) возникла новая династия потомков фараонов Ра и носила она фамилию Амон Ра или Амонов (Барановых по-русски). Пока неизвестно в какое время началась война рода Хан против рода Амонов, предположительно это 2000-1500 лет до н.э. Однако, известно, что род Хан захватил земли Верхнего и Нижнего Египта. В качестве послевоенного примирения решили царя из рода Хан женить на царице из рода Амон. Такой политический прием перемирия на уровне биологического союза родовой знати часто применялся в древности. Обычно военный правитель завоевателей брал в жены дочь царя завоеванной территории. Мальчика, родившегося от такого брака, назвали Тут, а его двойная царская фамилия была записана как Хан-Амон. Но так мы пишем двойные фамилии сегодня. В древности никаких знаков препинания не было, вот и получилось «Тутханамон», учитывая ошибку ученых с иероглифом «Анх» сегодня пишут «Тутанхамон».

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По двойной фамилии фараона видно, что «Тут Хан — Амон» (Туанхамон) – потомок двух крупных царских родов: рода «Амон» — прямого потомка рода Ра и китайского рода Хан. Символом рода Ра была змея – кобра с солнцем на голове, в древности ее носили только мужчины рода Ра, но со временем эта традиция была нарушена и символ стали изображать и на коронах женщин. Символ рода Хан был придуман позднее, и это было изображение коршуна, которое Франсуа Шампольон, кстати, принял за изображение ястреба. На маске Тут Хан-Амона (Тутанхамона) эти два родовых знака изображены вместе на царской короне. В данном случае змея, как символ рода Ра, досталась в корону от матери из рода Амонов, а коршун, как символ рода Хан, изображал род отца мальчика с фамилией Хан (Небо). Золото, из которого сделана маска символизирует солнце, а вот синяя лазурь соответствует небу и родовой фамилии царя Хан (Небо). С точки зрения современных понятий, Тут Хан-Амон (Тутанхамон) — это принц полукровка, потомок царицы черной расы, дочери правителя Верхнего Египта из рода Амон и древнего китайского царя из рода Хан.

Новые данные истории древнего Египта

 Как было отмечено ранее, из исследований древнего слогового языка, описанного в еврейских рукописях, выяснилось, что фамилия Хан означала «Небо». Со временем это значение фамилии было утеряно, и фамилия превратилась в титул. Древняя история Китая, шла примерно по тому же сценарию, что и древняя история Египта. Со временем от основной китайской династии Хань, «откололась» очень крупная родовая династия Цинь и множество мелких родовых династий. Однако, китайские императоры все это время продолжали называть себя «царями неба», а китайская империя получила название «поднебесной». При этом уже никто не помнил причину такого названия. Ученые ошибочно записали иероглиф «Хан» как «Анх», а поскольку символов неба в могилах Египта найдено было очень много решили, что «Анх» — это символ вечной жизни или бессмертия.

Такая же ошибка произошла и с иероглифом Мата. Этот иероглиф, изображаемый плетью с тремя косами, ошибочно назвали Маат.

Ошибка вышла и с титулом «фараон». Титул стали применять в своих записях даже греки в период колонизации Африки, его первоначальное значение было утеряно. Только благодаря расшифровкам тайнописи еврейских рукописей удалось установить, что это был глава империи царей рода Ра(Солнцевых).

Когда Говард Картер открыл миру великолепную золотую маску Тутанхамона, он записал в своем дневнике: «Все, что мы знаем об этом человеке, так это то, что он жил и умер…». Теперь мы знаем немного больше: потомок двух царских династий, символы которых змея и коршун, изображенные на маске, был правителем земли Верхнего Египта. Этой территорией правил род Амон Ра, но в ходе войны государство было захвачено китайским родом Хан. В результате межродового брака и перемирия между двумя царскими родами возник новый род — Хан-Амон. Этот род правил Верхним Египтом примерно за 1500 лет до н.э. Могила царя этого рода по имени Тут и фамилии Хан-Амон и была найден Говардом Картером.

 Александр Ткачёв.

Тутанхамо́н (Тутанхато́н) — фараон Древнего Египта из XVIII династии Нового царства, правивший приблизительно в 1332—1323 годах до н. э. Его обнаруженная Говардом Картером в 1922 году практически нетронутая гробница KV62 в Долине Царей стала сенсацией и возродила интерес публики к Древнему Египту.
Фараон и его золотая погребальная маска (ныне выставлена в Каирском египетском музее) с тех пор остаются популярными символами[1], а «мистические» смерти участников экспедиции 1922 года привели к возникновению понятия «проклятие фараонов».

Происхождение

Тутанхамон и его жена Анхесенамон. Фрагмент спинки золотого трона, XIV век до н. э.

Тутанхамон и его жена Анхесенамон. Фрагмент спинки золотого трона, XIV век до н. э.

Точных данных, в которых указано происхождение Тутанхамона, не найдено. Подтверждением существования царевича до его коронации служит камень из Гермополя с надписью: «возлюбленный сын фараона от его плоти Тутанхатон»[2]. Египтологи выдвинули две версии его происхождения:

  • он был сыном фараона Эхнатона[3];
  • отцом Тутанхамона был фараон Сменхкара, зять, брат или сын Эхнатона.

17 февраля 2010 года Захи Хавасс и министр культуры Египта Фарук Хосни обнародовали результаты исследований, которые проходили в 2007—2009 годах и заключались в комбинированном ДНК-анализе, а также радиологическом исследовании мумий[4]. Исследователи пришли к выводу, что Тутанхамон был сыном мумии из гробницы KV55 (предположительно, Эхнатона) и неидентифицированной принцессы («младшей дамы») из гробницы KV35[5]. Гаплотип не обнародован, однако управляющий директор швейцарской компании iGENEA Роман Шольц заявил, что по данным, показанным каналом Discovery, им удалось определить 16 маркеров из Y-хромосомы[6], после чего ими было выдвинуто предположение, что Тутанхамон принадлежал к Y-хромосомной гаплогруппе R1b1a2[7][8].

В том же 2010 году российский египтолог А. О. Большаков усомнился в результатах исследований Хавасса[9]. По его мнению, данные эпиграфики показывают, что среди детей Эхнатона мальчик Тутанхамон не изображается, хотя даже маленькие дочери изображены в качестве участниц культов Атона наравне с отцом. Также Большаков поддержал гипотезу, защищавшуюся Ю. Я. Перепёлкиным, о том, что мумия из KV55 — это Сменхкара.

В поздних документах своего правления Тутанхамон называет отцом своего деда Аменхотепа III, что объясняется сменой политического и религиозного вектора[2].

Имя

Слева: Расшифровка иероглифов имени Тутанхамона (на англ.)Справа: Личное имя (слева), Тронное имя (справа) Слева: Расшифровка иероглифов имени Тутанхамона (на англ.)Справа: Личное имя (слева), Тронное имя (справа)

Слева: Расшифровка иероглифов имени Тутанхамона (на англ.)
Справа: Личное имя (слева), Тронное имя (справа)

В детстве получил имя Тутанхатон (егип. twt-anx-itn — «Живое воплощение Атона»), что в иероглифической записи выглядит так:

После смерти Эхнатона и тенденции на восстановление прежнего пантеона на второй год своего правления Тутанхатон изменил своё имя на Тутанхамон (егип. twt-anx-imn HqA-iwnw-šmA Тутанхамон Хекаиунушема — «Живое воплощение Амона, властитель южного Иуну»). Его супруга царица Анхесенпаатон («Живёт она для Атона») соответственно изменила своё имя на Анхесенамон («Живёт она для Амона»)[2]. Иероглифически его имя записывалось как Амон-тут-анкх, где божественное имя в знак благоговения ставилось первым[10]. С восшествием на трон Тутанхамон принял тронное имя Небхепрура (егип. Nb-ḫprw-Rˁ — «живое воплощение Ра»), под которым фигурирует в Амарнском архиве.

Семья

Тутанхамон был женат на Анхесенамон (предположительно мумия KV21A), третьей дочери Эхнатона и Нефертити. В этом союзе были две мертворождённые дочери[en], найденные в гробнице Тутанхамона[12][13].

В конце 1996 года на мемфисском некрополе Саккары французская экспедиция под руководством Алена Зиви обнаружила гробницу кормилицы Тутанхамона по имени Майя. Согласно надписям и рисункам в гробнице, работы над усыпальницей продолжались и после смерти Тутанхамона[14][15].

XVIII династия

     Серым цветом выделены представители XVII династии.

Правление

Вступление на престол

Инсигнии Тутанхамона: скипетр (heka) и цеп (nekhakha)

После смерти Эхнатона власть перешла к Сменхкаре, а с его скоропостижной смертью — к некой царице, взявшей тронное имя Анкхетхеперура, возлюбленная Ваенра (=Эхнатоном) Нефернефруатон. Ею могла быть Нефертити, либо Меритатон (вдова Сменхкары)[16], либо даже Нефернефруатон-ташерит (четвёртая дочь Эхнатона и Нефертити). Личность Нефернефруатон иногда объединяют с безымянной царицей из хеттских источников, где она называется Дахамунцу[15]; либо же письма Дахамунцу исходили от вдовствующей Анхесенамон десятилетием позже[17]. Нефернефруатон могла оставаться регентшей при малолетнем Тутанхамоне[15].

Вступил на престол в возрасте около 10 лет[2].

В новой столице Амарне археологами не найдено предметов с именем фараона Тутанхатона или его тронных имён (Хорово имя, Имя по Небти). Это свидетельствует о том, что малолетний фараон начал своё правление после возвращения к прежнему культу со своим новым именем Тутанхамон[15].

Внутренняя политика

Деревянный бюст мальчика-фараона из его гробницы

Деревянный бюст мальчика-фараона из его гробницы

Религиозная реставрация

Из текста большой стелы, воздвигнутой от его имени в Карнаке, известно, что первые три года после вступления на престол Тутанхамон продолжал пребывать вместе с двором в Ахетатоне. На втором году правления[2] Тутанхатон и его супруга изменили имена в честь Амона, чей культ восстанавливался после упадка культа Атона. Одно из второстепенных имён фараона провозглашало его «Удовлетворяющим богов»[18]. Тутанхамон легитимизировал своё правление, назвав себя прямым наследником фараона Аменхотепа III (своего деда), а Эхнатона провозгласил отступником[2].

При Тутанхамоне велось усиленное восстановление заброшенных во время правления Эхнатона святилищ прежних богов[2], не только в Египте, но и в Куше — например, храмы в Каве (Гемпаатоне) и в Фарасе. Но впоследствии Хоремхеб уничтожал картуши Тутанхамона, заменяя их на свои, и захватил памятники его правления.

Также он даровал привилегии жрецам, певцам и служителям храмов, распорядился изготавливать церемониальные лодки из лучшего ливанского кедра, покрывать их золотом (Стела Реставрации)[2]. Юный Тутанхамон оставался марионеткой в руках придворных чиновников и жрецов традиционного культа. Регентом при малолетнем фараоне был Эйе (брат бабки Тутанхамона — Тии)[19].

Покинув Ахетатон, двор Тутанхамона не вернулся в Фивы (божество-покровитель Амон), а обосновался в Мемфисе[19] (божество-покровитель Птах). Тутанхамон периодически посещал южную столицу. Например, он участвовал там в главном городском празднестве Амона. Восстановив культ Амона и всех прочих старых богов, Тутанхамон не подвергал гонениям культ Атона. Храм Солнца ещё в 9-м году царствования Тутанхамона владел виноградниками. Изображения Солнца и Эхнатона сохранились нетронутыми, а в своих надписях Тутанхамон величает себя иногда «сыном Атона».

Строительство

Ввиду избрания фараоном Мемфиса своей фактической столицей, в некрополе Саккара были сооружены многочисленные гробницы вельмож, среди которых выделяются усыпальницы военачальника Хоремхеба, казначея и архитектора Майа (англ.), известные своей изящной рельефной декорировкой. В Фивах хорошо сохранилась гробница вельможи Аменхотепа Хеви, который был в это время царским наместником Нубии («Царским сыном Куша»).

Помимо реставрационных работ во многих святилищах по приказу Тутанхамона была завершена отделка процессионной колоннады Аменхотепа III в Луксорском храме, построен небольшой храм Хорона в Гизе; в Нубии — достроен гигантский храмовый комплекс Аменхотепа III в Солебе, возведён храм Амона в Кава и святилище самого обожествленного Тутанхамона в Фарасе. Заупокойный храм царя, украшенный красивейшими полихромными песчаниковыми колоссами, находился в Фивах неподалёку от Мединет Абу; позже храм был узурпирован преемниками фараона — Эйе и Хоремхебом (последний включал Тутанхамона в список еретиков, преданных забвению).

Внешняя политика

Тутанхамон поражает врагов на колеснице (ок. 1327 года до н. э.) Роспись по дереву, Каирский музей

Тутанхамон поражает врагов на колеснице (ок. 1327 года до н. э.) Роспись по дереву, Каирский музей

Возможно, в правление Тутанхамона военачальник Хоремхеб, будущий фараон, одержал победу в Сирии, в связи с чем в Карнаке изобразили прибытие царского судна с сирийцем в клетке. Возможно, в это же царствование велись успешные военные действия в Нубии. От имени Тутанхамона утверждали, что он обогащал храмы из своей военной добычи. Из надписи в гробнице наместника Нубии Аменхотепа (сокращенно Хаи) известно, что несколько сирийских племён регулярно выплачивали дань. Поступали подати и из Нубии.

Правление Тутанхамона не отличилось ничем значительным, помимо отказа от атонизма. Обнаруживший гробницу Тутанхамона археолог Говард Картер заявил:

При нынешнем состоянии наших знаний мы можем с уверенностью сказать только одно: единственным примечательным событием его жизни было то, что он умер и был похоронен.

Смерть Тутанхамона

Некоторые из 130 тростей Тутанхамона. Либо фараон не мог ходить без них, либо они служили аксессуаром, как другим правителям XVIII династии[20]

Некоторые из 130 тростей Тутанхамона. Либо фараон не мог ходить без них, либо они служили аксессуаром, как другим правителям XVIII династии[20]

Тутанхамон скончался на 19-м году жизни и был упокоен в своей гробнице KV62 в Долине Царей.

Существует несколько версий смерти фараона Тутанхамона:

  1. Тутанхамон мог быть убит по приказу регента Эйе, ставшего после новым фараоном;
  2. Исследования 2005 года выдвинули предположение о смерти Тутанхамона в результате травмы. 8 марта 2005 года египтолог Захи Хавасс огласил результаты компьютерной томографии Тутанхамона, которые не обнаружили следов черепно-мозговой травмы (прореха в черепе, очевидно, появилась в результате мумификации). Были опровергнуты также результаты предыдущих рентгеновских исследований тела фараона, приписывающих ему тяжёлую степень сколиоза;
  3. Исследования 2010 года свидетельствуют, что Тутанхамон умер «от тяжёлой осложнённой формы малярии, возбудители которой обнаружены в его теле в ходе ДНК-анализов». Этот вывод подтверждает и наличие в гробнице Тутанхамона лекарственных снадобий для лечения малярии[4].
  4. Причиной травмы послужило падение с колесницы во время охоты, поскольку смерть Тутанхамона совпадает с разгаром охотничьего сезона в Египте. Время смерти установлено по надетому на мумию венку из цветущих васильков и ромашек. Время их цветения выпадает на март-апрель, а поскольку процесс мумификации длился 70 дней, то смерть должна была наступить в декабре-январе[21].
  5. Медицинские работники (патологоанатомы-криминалисты) Скотленд-Ярда, осмотрев череп мумии, пришли к выводу, что человека убили чем-то похожим на топор[источник не указан 1645 дней].

17 февраля 2010 года Захи Хавасс и министр культуры Египта Фарук Хосни обнародовали результаты ДНК-исследований 2007—2009 годов, согласно которым члены семьи Тутанхамона страдали генетическими заболеваниями[22]. В частности, некоторые её представители, в том числе и Тутанхамон, страдали болезнью Кёлера (некроз костей стоп, вызванный нарушением кровоснабжения). В то же время синдрома Марфана, гинекомастии и других генетических отклонений, которые могли спровоцировать «женские» очертания фигур у правителей той эпохи, обнаружены не были[4]. Среди других недугов фараона также имелись расщепление нёба («волчья пасть» — врожденное незаращение твёрдого нёба и верхней челюсти) и косолапость[23].

Смерть Тутанхамона, не оставившего законного наследника, привела к сложностям в престолонаследии[2]. Сведения о периоде после смерти Тутанхамона дискуссионны и сложны для детального восстановления[15]. Имеется предположение, что некоторое время вдовствующая Анхесенамон, не обладая правами на единоличное правление и не имея подходящего по статусу жениха, пыталась заключить брак с хеттским принцем Заннанзой (см. Дахамунцу). Принц погиб на границе Египта, след царицы теряется в истории[2][17]. Официальным правителем после Тутанхамона стал Эйе, затем власть перешла к бывшему военачальнику Хоремхебу. Никто из них не оставил после себя наследников, что положило конец XVIII династии.

Гробница

Гробница KV62

Гробница KV62

В глазах историков Тутанхамон оставался малоизвестным второстепенным фараоном вплоть до начала XX века. Более того, даже высказывались сомнения в реальности его существования. Поэтому открытие гробницы Тутанхамона считается одним из величайших событий в истории археологии.

Скорее всего, при жизни Эхнатона для царевича Тутанхатона возле Амарны строилась усыпальница, работы над которой прекратились с возвращением к старым порядкам. Для Тутанхамона начали готовить новую гробницу в Фивах, но не успели завершить все работы к дню его смерти. Его гробницу (KV62) в Долине царей обнаружил английский археолог Говард Картер в 1922 году. Она оказалась почти нетронутой расхитителями (найдены следы двух проникновений древних грабителей, которым, очевидно, помешали совершить преступление), что прославило этого фараона в наши дни. Гробница уступает в размерах по сравнению с прочими гробницами XVIII династии, поскольку не предназначалась для захоронения Тутанхамона, — её спешно обустроили, когда молодой фараон умер[19].

В ней, среди погребальных принадлежностей и утвари, обнаружено множество произведений искусства той эпохи — различные предметы быта (позолоченная колесница, кресла, кровать, светильники), драгоценные украшения, одежда, письменные принадлежности и даже пучок волос его бабушки Тии.

Все артефакты гробницы Тутанхамона из собрания музеев Египта предстанут в единой экспозиции строящегося Большого египетского музея в Гизе[24][25].

Легенда о «проклятии фараона»

Говард Картер изучает саркофаг Тутанхамона, 1922 год

Лорд Дж. Карнарвон, который финансировал раскопки, умер 5 апреля 1923 в каирской гостинице «Континенталь» от воспаления лёгких, однако практически сразу возникли мистификации вокруг его смерти. В последующие годы пресса распространяла слухи о «проклятии фараонов», якобы приведшего к гибели первооткрывателей гробницы, насчитывая до 22 «жертв проклятия», 13 из которых непосредственно присутствовали при вскрытии гробницы. В их числе упоминались и такие крупные специалисты, как крупнейший американский египтолог профессор Дж. Г. Брэстед, автор грамматики египетского языка А. Х. Гардинер, профессор Н. Г. Дэйвис.

Однако факты свидетельствуют о том, что доказательства «проклятия» были подогнаны для достижения газетной сенсации: абсолютное большинство участников экспедиции Картера достигли преклонного возраста, а средняя продолжительность их жизни составляет 74,4 года. Так, Дж. Г. Брэстеду было уже 70 лет, Н. Г. Дэйвису — 71, а А. Х. Гардинеру — 84 года. Говард Картер, непосредственно руководивший всеми работами в гробнице, умер последним — в 1939 году в возрасте 64 лет. Одна из популярных теорий, пытающихся проанализировать гибель участников экспедиции, связывает её с грибком или другим микроорганизмом, находившимся в усыпальнице, что объясняет, в частности, тот факт, что первым умер астматик Дж. Карнарвон.

Палеогенетика

Исследование ДНК показало, что фараон Эхнатон и его безымянная сестра были родителями Тутанхамона, который унаследовал тяжёлые генетические заболевания (расщепление нёба, косолапость). Y-хромосомная гаплогруппа R1b передавалась от Аменхотепа III к Эхнатону и Тутанхамону. У Тутанхамона и у его исторически неизвестной матери (младшей леди КВ35) определена митохондриальная гаплогруппа K[26][27]. Исследование крови показало, что он умер от малярии, причём это самое древнее доказательство малярии, которое сейчас известно. Исследования мумии показали, что незадолго до смерти фараон сломал ногу, возможно, после падения с колесницы, что объясняет наличие среди погребального имущества палок и посохов, которые он мог использовать в качестве трости. Кость должным образом не срослась и начала отмирать, что сделало юношу восприимчивым к инфекции. И заражение малярией, косвенным доказательством которой являются семена, плоды и листья, найденные в гробнице и, возможно, использовавшиеся для лечения, могла привести к опасному для жизни состоянию. Однако некоторые учёные считают, что наличие малярийного паразита не обязательно означает, что фараон умер именно от болезни; по мнению доктора Боба Конноли из Ливерпульского университета, исследовавшего мумию, причиной смерти Тутанхамона стало именно падение с колесницы, поскольку грудная полость была продавлена и сломаны рёбра[28].

В массовой культуре

В художественной литературе

  • Перипетии перехода власти от Эхнатона до Хоремхеба описаны в трилогии Жеральда Мессадье[fr] «Бури на Ниле».
  • В романе «Тень фараона» автора Сантьяго Мората Тутанхамон пылко влюблён в свою мачеху Нефертити.
  • Главный герой романа Дмитрия Мережковского «Рождение богов. Тутанкамон на Крите».
  • Присутствует в романе Мика Валтари «Синухе, египтянин» (1945).
  • Книга Клары Моисеевой «Дочь Эхнатона» (1967).
  • Упоминается в романе Георгия Дмитриевича Гулиа «Фараон Эхнатон» (недоступная ссылка) (1968).

В кинематографе

  • 1992 — История о гробнице Тутанхамона рассказывается в первой серии сериала «Хроники молодого Индианы Джонса».
  • 2007 — мультфильм «Принцесса солнца» (Франция)[29].
  • 2003—2008 — мультипликационный сериал «Тутенштейн» (США)
  • 2015 — Канадо-американский мини-сериал из трёх эпизодов «Тут» основан на жизни египетского фараона Тутанхамона. Роль взрослого фараона исполнил актёр Эван Джогиа.
  • 2016 — История сотрудничества египтолога Говарда Картера и лорда Карнарвона, приведшая к открытию гробницы Тутанхамона, легла в основу сюжета мини-сериала «Тутанхамон».
  • 2019 — Телефильм «Тутанхамон. Вновь обнаруженные сокровища» (Toutankhamon, le trésor redécouvert). 98 мин. 2018, ARTE Франция. Режиссёр Фредерик Вильнер (Frédéric Wilner).

Примечания

  1. Выдвинута смелая гипотеза о реальном происхождении маски Тутанхамона  Архивная копия от 2 сентября 2021 на Wayback Machine // РГ, 29.07.2021
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 John Coleman Darnell, Colleen Manassa. Tutankhamun’s Armies: Battle and Conquest During Ancient Egypt’s Late Eighteenth Dynasty. — John Wiley & Sons, 2007. — С. 48, 51. — 321 с. — ISBN 9780471743583.
  3. ცივილიზაცია XXI. Discovery: Тайны гробницы Тутанхамона: Королевская кровь / 1 серия (6 февраля 2016). Дата обращения: 6 февраля 2018. Архивировано 23 марта 2019 года.
  4. 1 2 3 Исследования мумий так и не открыли всех тайн фараона Тутанхамона. РИА Новости (17 февраля 2010). Дата обращения: 14 августа 2010. Архивировано 27 августа 2011 года.
  5. Hawass Z, Gad YZ, Ismail S, Khairat R, Fathalla D, Hasan N, Ahmed A, Elleithy H, Ball M, Gaballah F, Wasef S, Fateen M, Amer H, Gostner P, Selim A, Zink A, Pusch CM. Ancestry and Pathology in King Tutankhamun’s Family (англ.) // JAMA. — 2010. — Февраль. — doi:10.1001/jama.2010.121. — PMID 20159872.
  6. Stephanie Pappas, Live Science Contributor | August 3, 2011 06:40pm ET. King Tut Related to Half of European Men? Maybe Not. Live Science. Дата обращения: 16 декабря 2018. Архивировано 2 января 2019 года.
  7. The Tutankhamun DNA Project. www.igenea.com. Дата обращения: 1 апреля 2016. Архивировано 14 марта 2016 года.
  8. Половина мужчин Европы - потомки фараона Тутанхамона. BBC News Русская служба. Дата обращения: 16 декабря 2018. Архивировано 29 июня 2018 года.
  9. Большаков А. О. Мог ли Тутанхамон быть сыном Эхнатона? // Петербургские египтологические чтения 2009—2010. СПб., 2011. С. 31-36.
  10. Zauzich, Karl-Theodor. Hieroglyphs Without Mystery. — Austin: University of Texas Press, 1992. — С. 30—31. — ISBN 978-0-292-79804-5.
  11. Von Beckerath J. Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (нем.). — S. 144—145.
  12. Тутанхамон / гл. ред. А. М. Прохоров. Большая советская энциклопедия: [в 30 т.]. — 3-е. — М.: Советская энциклопедия, 1969—1978.
  13. Bard, 2005, p. 854.
  14. Alain-Pierre Zivie. La Tombe de Maia, Mère Nourricière du Roi Toutankhamon et Grande du Harem. (Les Tombes du Bubasteion à Saqqara. Nr. 1). — Caracara: Toulouse, 2009.
  15. 1 2 3 4 5 Marianne Eaton-Krauss. The Unknown Tutankhamun. — Bloomsbury Publishing, 2015. — С. 13, 28. — 209 с. — ISBN 9781472575630.
  16. J. Tyldesley. Chronicle of the Queens of Egypt. — Thames & Hudson, 2006. — С. 136—137.
  17. 1 2 И. А. Стучевский. Межгосударственные отношения и дипломатия на Древнем Востоке. — М.: Наука, 1987. — С. 75. — 311 с.
  18. Price B. Tutankhamun: Egypt’s Most Famous Pharoah. — Summersdale Publishers, 2007. — С. 37. — ISBN 184839604X.
  19. 1 2 3 Kathryn A. Bard. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. — John Wiley & Sons, 2015. — С. 248. — 508 с. — ISBN 9781118896112. Архивная копия от 29 августа 2018 на Wayback Machine
  20. Nick Brown. University of California, Los Angeles: Tutankhamun’s Sticks. American Research Center in Egypt. www.arce.org. Дата обращения: 13 января 2020. Архивировано 1 декабря 2019 года.
  21. Учёные раскрыли тайну смерти фараона Тутанхамона. rus.newsru.ua. Дата обращения: 1 апреля 2016. Архивировано 3 апреля 2016 года.
  22. Zahi Hawass et al., JAMA, vol. 303(7), pp 638—647, 2010
  23. Причиной смерти Тутанхамона оказалась малярия (рус.), MedPortal.ru. Архивировано 27 августа 2018 года. Дата обращения: 27 августа 2018.
  24. Second of Tutankhamen collection transferred to Grand Egyptian museum - Daily News Egypt (англ.), Daily News Egypt (21 June 2017). Архивировано 21 июня 2017 года. Дата обращения: 22 сентября 2018.
  25. Editorial, Reuters. King Tutankhamen’s military chariot moved to new Egyptian museum (англ.), U.S.. Архивировано 28 июня 2018 года. Дата обращения: 22 сентября 2018.
  26. Yehia Z Gad et al. 2020. Maternal and Paternal Lineages in King Tutankhamun’s Family Архивная копия от 2 февраля 2021 на Wayback Machine // Guardian of Ancient Egypt: Studies in Honor of Zahi Hawass, Volume I. Charles University, Prague, Faculty of Arts: 497—518
  27. Yehia Z Gad et al. Insights from ancient DNA analysis of Egyptian human mummies: clues to disease and kinship Архивная копия от 7 января 2021 на Wayback Machine, 15 October 2020
  28. Michelle Roberts. ‘Malaria’ killed King Tutankhamun (англ.), BBC News (16 February 2010). Архивировано 26 августа 2017 года. Дата обращения: 8 декабря 2017.
  29. Princess of the Sun (La Reine Soleil) (англ.), Cineuropa — the best of european cinema. Архивировано 21 сентября 2018 года. Дата обращения: 21 сентября 2018.

Литература

  • Брукнер Карл. Золотой фараон / Пер. с нем. Ю. О. Бема и Н. А. Долдобановой. — М.: Молодая гвардия, 1967. — 200 с.: ил.
  • История Древнего Востока. Зарождение древнейших классовых обществ и первые очаги рабовладельческой цивилизации. Часть 2. Передняя Азия. Египет / Под редакцией Г. М. Бонгард-Левина. — М.: Главная редакция восточной литературы издательства «Наука», 1988. — 623 с. — 25 000 экз.
  • Картер Говард. Гробница Тутанхамона / Пер. с англ. Ф. Л. Мендельсона и Д. Г. Редера. — М.: Изд-во восточной лит-ры, 1959. — 262.: ил.
  • Кацнельсон И. С. Тутанхамон и сокровища его гробницы. — М.: Наука, Главная ред. восточной лит-ры, 1979. — Изд. 2-е. — 152 с.: ил. — Серия «По следам исчезнувших культур Востока».
  • Керам К. Боги. Гробницы. Ученые. Роман археологии / Пер. с нем. А. С. Варшавского. — М.: Изд-во иностранной лит-ры, 1960. — 400 с.: ил.
  • Косидовский Зенон. Когда солнце было богом / Пер. с пол. Н. М. Дубова. — М.: Наука, Главная ред. восточной лит-ры, 1968. — 346 с.: ил.
  • О’Фаррелл Д. Великая мистификация. Загадки гробницы Тутанхамона. — Смоленск: Русич, 2010. — 320 с.: ил. — Серия «Историческая библиотека».
  • Перепёлкин Ю. Я. Тайна золотого гроба. — М.: Наука, Главная редакция вост. лит-ры, 1969. — 176 с.: ил. — Серия «По следам исчезнувших культур Востока».
  • Сильверберг Роберт. Приключения в археологии / Пер. с англ. Е. В. Лазаревой. — М.: Вече, 2007. — 384 с.: ил. — Серия «Великие тайны». — ISBN 978-5-9533-1924-9.
  • Солкин В. В. Тутанхамон. / Древний Египет. Энциклопедия. — М., 2005
  • Тутанхамон и его время: Сб. ст. — М.: Наука. Главная редакция восточной литературы, 1976. — 216 с. — 10 000 экз.
  • Древний Восток и античность. // Правители Мира. Хронологическо-генеалогические таблицы по всемирной истории в 4 тт. / Автор-составитель В. В. Эрлихман. — Т. 1.
  • Von Beckerath J. Handbuch der ägyptischen Königsnamen (нем.). — Münch.: Deutscher Kunstverlag, 1984. — 314 p. — (Münchner ägyptologische Studien). — ISBN 3422008322.
  • James T. G. H. Tutankhamun. — Cairo, 2001.
  • Reeves N. The Complete Tutankhamun. — London, 1990.
  • Kathryn A. Bard. Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. — Routledge, 2005. — 968 с. — ISBN 9781134665259.

Ссылки

  • Тутанхамон — энциклопедическая статья с сайта Древний Египет
  • Реставрационная стела Тутанхамона — перевод Ю. Я. Перепёлкина
  • Кто убил Тутанхамона?
  • Тутанхамон: фотографии 1922—1923 годов
  • Сокровища фараона глазами первооткрывателей — раритетные фото времён открытия гробницы
  • Загадки жизни и смерти Тутанхамона


Эта страница в последний раз была отредактирована 25 февраля 2023 в 15:29.

Как только страница обновилась в Википедии она обновляется в Вики 2.
Обычно почти сразу, изредка в течении часа.

Золотая маска фараона Тутанхамона

Тайна Иероглифов Золотой маски Тутанхамона раскрыта. Египтологи в шоке.. Снята первая печать библейского Неба.

Да, именно так. И уж поверьте, это не фантазии и фантасмагории или нелепые возгласы желтых и прочих оттенков палитры изданий, все мы этим кормлены вдоволь, согласитесь.

Это реальность, та самая бескомпромиссная реальность, от которой уже не отмахнуться, это тот самый «рубикон», меридиан Богуа если хотите, который вы сможете перейти, это те знания, которые до времени были просто не доступны, как говорится, скрыты до поры.

Да, это то самое в писании «Библейское Небо» которое упадёт на Землю.

Библейское небо — суть Знания, которые откроются людям.

И вот это время пришло, пора Эпохи Водолея настала и на наших глазах тайное, вдруг становится — явным.

И теперь любой желающий сможет лично прикоснуться к этому, понять суть глубинного кода, кода Образа Слова, а по сути мыслеформ вложенных в начертания иероглифов древнего Египта.

Фото Сергея Ковалёва: Иероглифы на обратной стороне маски

И самим сделать выводы.. Именно самим, дабы понять, это потрясающие открытие нашего века или нечто большее !?

Перед вами откроется Мир.. мир сакральных тайн и знаний древнего Египта.

Да, это не просто и требует определённых усилий и подготовки и соответствующего ментального состояния человека, но это возможно, более чем возможно.

Расшифровка одной из колонок на маске фараона Андреем Банниковым

Сразу оговорюсь, не имею намерений каким либо образом приуменьшить значимость работ мастеров «старой школы» египтологии Жан — Франсуа Шампольона, Алана Гардитет, В.С. Голенищева и пр.пр список можно продолжать утомительно долго.

Жан — Франсуа Шампольон 1790 — 1830 г.

Они сделали безусловно очень и очень многое, фактически жизнь положили на алтарь знаний о далёкой земле изнуряющего зноя, песка, верблюдов и Пирамид.

Да, они проникли в тайные комнаты и гробницы, показали миру скрытые от глаз артефакты, но ни один из них не проник в тайну кода египетского письма.. ни один.

Археологическая экспедиция в Египет

Что собственно по сути.

Датой основания египтологии традиционно считают 22 сентября 1822 г., когда французский историк и лингвист Ж.-Ф. Шампольон сделал сообщение в Академии надписей в Париже о дешифровке египетского иероглифического письма и проведённой им расшифровке текста Розеттского камня.

И 14 сентября 1822 года стало «возможным» чтение египетских иероглифов.

К тому моменту Шампольон уже знал множество восточных языков, а в 17 лет стал профессором Академии наук. Но всё же, настоящей его страстью была древнеегипетская письменность. Жизнь его складывалась более чем не просто, он имел хрупкое здоровье и конечном счёте был обвинен в бонапартизме и уволен с кафедры. Однако наличие свободного времени и упорный дух сделали свое дело — он добился определённог успеха.

Ж.-Ф. Шампольон отверг все существующие методы прочтения иероглифов и предположил, что знаки на рисунках — это буквы. На камне, как ему виделось, некоторые группы символов были обведены овалами и ученый принял их за имена фараонов Клеопатры и Птолемея и начал расшифровку. В процессе работы он составил основы алфавита.

Но это было лишь начало, оказалось, что в других надписях эти же иероглифы могут означать слоги и даже целые слова. Прежде чем древнеегипетская письменность «открыла» все свои тайны, а ученый был признан, прошли десятилетия, занятые упорным трудом.

Тем не менее, не смотря на то, что в последствии оказалось, что опираясь на его труды прочесть и донести суть иероглифов к широкой общественности оказалось практически не возможным, ибо все (за некоторым исключением) иероглифы были истолкованы не верно, всё же полагаю ему нужно отдать должное, как человеку проложившему некую «тропу», возможный вектор в понимании сути и смыла древнеегипетских иероглифов, ибо главная их составляющая всё же — мыслеформа, определённое понятие вложенное в суть, где к примеру: «ДИ» обозначает некое понижение в статусе, отдаление, снижение уровня восприятия, сознания и пр пр., так мыслеформа перекликается с современным славянским (и не только) языком, к примеру в словах: саДИсь, отойДИ, отвеДИ, ДИсквалификация и пр. И во все те глубины кода египетского письма, в которые действительно, по настоящему удалось проникнуть лишь спустя два столетия и только одному человеку — Андрею Банникову.

Иероглифы на Розеттском камне

Розеттский камень — стела из гранодиорита, найденная в 1799 году в Египте возле небольшого города Розетта (теперь Рашид), недалеко от Александрии. Текст камня представляет собой благодарственную надпись, которую в 196 году до н. э. египетские жрецы адресовали Птолемею V Эпифану, монарху из династии Птолемеев.

Начало текста: «Новому царю, получившему царство от отца»…

Розеттский камень — плита из гранодиорита

И это всё.!

Да, это практически всё, после этих стараний никто в дешифровке иероглифов не сдвинулся ни на шаг, ни на йоту, не считая безусловно разного рода интерпретаций на тему: «повелитель и фараон земель верхнего и нижнего Нила..» ну и прочих удручающих слух и воображение читателя домыслов, с полным и безобразным искажением не только смысла текста, неправильной перерисовкой но и перестановкой местами иероглифов для удобства надо понимать защиты очередной липовой диссертации.

Благо ни проверить ни сопоставить ни кто не сможет.

А нет.. теперь сможет. Знакомьтесь.

Фото: Андрей Банников

Андрей Банников.

Предвосхищать труды этого человека, реально, на ваших практически глазах проводящего дешифровку древних египетских текстов, делающего полный разбор глубинных значений и раскрывающего скрытые смыслы и образы в иероглифах, сказах, мифах и библейских преданиях даже не вижу особого смыла, ибо краткий спич может превратится в книгу.

Расшифровка Андрея Банникова

Фото по материалам сайта Андрея Банникова

В общем просто рекомендую почитать, послушать и посмотреть. Будет очень интересно!

Сергей Амуров, г. Белая Церковь 24.07.2021г.

Андрей Банников.

Tutankhamun
Tutankhaten, Tutankhamen[1]
Tutankhamun's golden funerary mask

Tutankhamun’s golden funerary mask

Pharaoh
Reign c. 1332 – 1323 BC, New Kingdom (18th Dynasty)
Predecessor Neferneferuaten
Successor Ay (granduncle/grandfather-in-law)

Royal titulary

Consort Ankhesenamun (half-sister)
Children 2 (317a and 317b)
Father KV55 mummy,[5] identified as most likely Akhenaten
Mother The Younger Lady
Born c. 1341 BC
Died c. 1323 BC (aged 18–19)
Burial KV62

Tutankhamun (or Tutankhamen;[a] ;[6] Ancient Egyptian: twt-ꜥnḫ-jmn; c. 1341 BC – c. 1323 BC) was the antepenultimate pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of ancient Egypt. He ascended to the throne around the age of nine and reigned until his death around the age of nineteen. Historically, Tutankhamun is primarily known for restoring the traditional polytheistic ancient Egyptian religion, after its suppression by Akhenaten in favor of the Atenist religion. Also, Tutankhamun was one of few kings worshipped as a deity during his lifetime; this was usually done posthumously for most pharaohs.[7] In popular culture, he is known for his vastly opulent wealth found during the 1922 discovery of his tomb, KV62, the only such tomb to date to have been found in near-intact condition.[8] The discovery of his tomb is widely considered one of the greatest archaeological discoveries of all time.[9][10]

His parentage is debated, as they are not attested in surviving inscriptions. DNA testing has identified his father as the mummy within tomb KV55, thought to be the pharaoh Akhenaten. His mother was identified as a mummy from tomb KV35, which was also his aunt, informally referred to as «The Younger Lady» but is otherwise unknown.[11]

Tutankhamun took the throne under the unprecedented viziership of his eventual successor, Ay, to whom he may have been related. Within tomb KV21, the mummy KV21A was identified as having been the biological mother of Tutankhamun’s two daughters — it is therefore speculated that this mummy is of his only known wife, Ankhesenamun, who was his paternal half-sister. Their two daughters were identified as the 317a and 317b mummies; daughter 317a was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy while daughter 317b was born at full-term, though both died in infancy.[12] His names — Tutankhaten and Tutankhamun — are thought to have meant «living image of Aten» and «living image of Amun» in the ancient Egyptian language, with the god Aten having been replaced by the god Amun after Akhenaten’s death. Some Egyptologists, including Battiscombe Gunn, have claimed that the translation may be incorrect, instead being closer to «the-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing» or «one-perfect-of-life-is-Aten» (the latter translation by Gerhard Fecht).

Tutankhamun restored the ancient Egyptian religion against Akhenaten’s Atenism and also relocated Egypt’s capital back to Thebes, undoing Akhenaten’s earlier relocation of the capital to Amarna. He also enriched and endowed the priestly orders of two important cults, initiated a restoration process for old monuments that were damaged during the Amarna Period, and reburied his father’s remains in the Valley of the Kings. Tutankhamun’s health and early death are heavily debated. The most recent study suggests Tutankhamun had bone necrosis and a possible clubfoot, which may have rendered him dependent on assistive canes. This theory is disputed, as neither the canes nor his sandals show the kinds of the wear expected. He also had other health issues, including scoliosis, and had contracted several strains of malaria. He likely died of complications from a broken leg, possibly compounded by malaria.

In 1922, a team led by British Egyptologist Howard Carter in the Valley of the Kings excavated Tutankhamun’s tomb, in an effort that was funded by British aristocrat George Herbert.[13] The discovery of Tutankhamun’s tomb received worldwide press coverage; with over 5,000 artifacts, it gave rise to renewed public interest in ancient Egypt, for which Tutankhamun’s mask, now preserved at the Egyptian Museum, remains a popular symbol. The deaths of some individuals who were involved in the unearthing of Tutankhamun’s mummy have been popularly attributed to the «curse of the pharaohs» due to the similarity of their circumstances. Some of his treasure has traveled worldwide with unprecedented response; the Egyptian government allowed tours beginning in 1961. Tutankhamun has, since the discovery of his intact tomb, been referred to as «King Tut» in colloquial terms.[14]

Family

Tutankhamun, whose original name was Tutankhaten or Tutankhuaten, was born during the reign of Akhenaten, during the late Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt.[15] Akhenaten’s reign was characterized by a dramatic shift in ancient Egyptian religion, known as Atenism, and the relocation of the capital to the site of Amarna, which gave its name to the modern term for this era, the Amarna Period.[16] Toward the end of the Amarna Period, two other pharaohs appear in the record who were apparently Akhenaten’s co-regents: Neferneferuaten, a female ruler who may have been Akhenaten’s wife Nefertiti or his daughter Meritaten; and Smenkhkare, whom some Egyptologists believe was the same person as Neferneferuaten but most regard as a distinct figure.[17] It is uncertain whether Smenkhkare’s reign outlasted Akhenaten’s, whereas Neferneferuaten is now thought to have become co-regent shortly before Akhenaten’s death and to have reigned for some time after it.[18]

An inscription from Hermopolis refers to «Tutankhuaten» as a «king’s son», and he is generally thought to have been the son of Akhenaten,[19] although some suggest instead that Smenkhkare was his father.[20] Inscriptions from Tutankhamun’s reign treat him as a son of Akhenaten’s father, Amenhotep III, but that is only possible if Akhenaten’s 17-year reign included a long co-regency with his father,[21] a possibility that many Egyptologists once supported but is now being abandoned.[22]

While some suggestions have been made that Tutankhamun’s mother was Meketaten, the second daughter of Akhenaten and Nefertiti, based on a relief from the Royal Tomb at Amarna,[b] this possibility has been deemed unlikely given that she was about 10 years old at the time of her death.[24] Another interpretation of the relief names Nefertiti as his mother.[c][26] Meritaten has also been put forward as his mother based on a re-examination of a box lid and coronation tunic found in his tomb.[27] Tutankhamun was wet nursed by a woman named Maia, known from her tomb at Saqqara.[28][29]

In 2008, genetic analysis was carried out on the mummified remains of Tutankhamun and others thought or known to be New Kingdom royalty by a team from University of Cairo. The results indicated that his father was the mummy from tomb KV55, identified as Akhenaten, and that his mother was the mummy from tomb KV35, known as the «Younger Lady», who was found to be a full sister of her husband.[30] The team reported it was over 99.99 percent certain that Amenhotep III was the father of the individual in KV55, who was in turn the father of Tutankhamun.[31] More recent genetic analysis, published in 2020, revealed Tutankhamun had the haplogroups YDNA R1b, which originated in Europe and which today makes up 50–90% of the genetic pool of modern western Europeans, and mtDNA K, which originated in the Near East. He shares this Y-haplogroup with his father, the KV55 mummy (Akhenaten), and grandfather, Amenhotep III, and his mtDNA haplogroup with his mother, The Younger Lady, his grandmother, Tiye, and his great-grandmother, Thuya, upholding the results of the earlier genetic study. The profiles for Tutankhamun and Amenhotep III were incomplete and the analysis produced differing probability figures despite having concordant allele results. Because the relationships of these two mummies with the KV55 mummy had previously been confirmed in an earlier study, the haplogroup prediction of both mummies could be derived from the full profile of the KV55 data.[32]

The identity of The Younger Lady is unknown but she cannot be Nefertiti, as she was not known to be a sister of Akhenaten.[33] However, researchers such as Marc Gabolde and Aidan Dodson claim that Nefertiti was indeed Tutankhamun’s mother. In this interpretation of the DNA results, the genetic closeness is not due to a brother-sister pairing but the result of three generations of first-cousin marriage, making Nefertiti a first cousin of Akhenaten.[34] The validity and reliability of the genetic data from mummified remains has been questioned due to possible degradation due to decay.[35]

When Tutankhaten became king, he married Ankhesenpaaten, one of Akhenaten’s daughters, who later changed her name to Ankhesenamun.[36] They had two daughters, neither of whom survived infancy.[30] While only an incomplete genetic profile was obtained from the two mummified foetuses, it was enough to confirm that Tutankhamun was their father.[30] Likewise, only partial data for the two female mummies from KV21 has been obtained so far. KV21A has been suggested as the mother of the foetuses but the data is not statistically significant enough to allow her to be securely identified as Ankhesenamun.[30] Computed tomography studies published in 2011 revealed that one daughter was born prematurely at 5–6 months of pregnancy and the other at full-term, 9 months.[12] Tutankhamun’s death marked the end of the royal line of the 18th Dynasty.[37]

Reign

The throne of Tutankhamun, the Aten depicted above

Tutankhamun was between eight and nine years of age when he ascended the throne and became pharaoh,[38] taking the throne name Nebkheperure.[39] He reigned for about nine years.[40] During Tutankhamun’s reign the position of Vizier had been split between Upper and Lower Egypt. The principal vizier for Upper Egypt was Usermontu. Another figure named Pentju was also vizier but it is unclear of which lands. It is not entirely known if Ay, Tutankhamun’s successor, actually held this position. A gold foil fragment from KV58 seems to indicate, but not certainly, that Ay was referred to as a Priest of Maat along with an epithet of «vizier, doer of maat.» The epithet does not fit the usual description used by the regular vizier but might indicate an informal title. It might be that Ay used the title of vizier in an unprecedented manner.[41]

An Egyptian priest named Manetho wrote a comprehensive history of ancient Egypt where he refers to a king named Orus, who ruled for 36 years and had a daughter named Acencheres who reigned twelve years and her brother Rathotis who ruled for only nine years.[42][43] The Amarna rulers are central in the list but which name corresponds with which historic figure is not agreed upon by researchers. Orus and Acencheres have been identified with Horemheb and Akhenaten and Rathotis with Tutankhamun. The names are also associated with Smenkhkare, Amenhotep III, Ay and the others in differing order.[44]

Kings were venerated after their deaths through mortuary cults and associated temples. Tutankhamun was one of the few kings worshiped in this manner during his lifetime.[7] A stela discovered at Karnak and dedicated to Amun-Ra and Tutankhamun indicates that the king could be appealed to in his deified state for forgiveness and to free the petitioner from an ailment caused by sin. Temples of his cult were built as far away as in Kawa and Faras in Nubia. The title of the sister of the Viceroy of Kush included a reference to the deified king, indicative of the universality of his cult.[45]

In order for the pharaoh, who held divine office, to be linked to the people and the gods, special epithets were created for them at their accession to the throne. The ancient Egyptian titulary also served to demonstrate one’s qualities and link them to the terrestrial realm. The five names were developed over the centuries beginning with the Horus name.[d][48][49] Tutankhamun’s[e] original nomen, Tutankhaten,[50] did not have a Nebty name[f] or a Gold Falcon name[g] associated with it[51] as nothing has been found with the full five-name protocol.[h] Tutankhaten was believed to mean «Living-image-of-Aten» as far back as 1877; however, not all Egyptologists agree with this interpretation. English Egyptologist Battiscombe Gunn believed that the older interpretation did not fit with Akhenaten’s theology. Gunn believed that such an name would have been blasphemous. He saw tut as a verb and not a noun and gave his translation in 1926 as The-life-of-Aten-is-pleasing. Professor Gerhard Fecht also believed the word tut was a verb. He noted that Akhenaten used tit as a word for ‘image’, not tut. Fecht translated the verb tut as «To be perfect/complete». Using Aten as the subject, Fecht’s full translation was «One-perfect-of-life-is-Aten». The Hermopolis Block (two carved block fragments discovered in Ashmunein) has a unique spelling of the first nomen written as Tutankhuaten; it uses ankh as a verb, which does support the older translation of Living-image-of-Aten.[51]

End of Amarna period

Egyptian art of the Amarna period

Once crowned and after «taking counsel» with the god Amun, Tutankhamun made several endowments that enriched and added to the priestly numbers of the cults of Amun and Ptah. He commissioned new statues of the deities from the best metals and stone and had new processional barques made of the finest cedar from Lebanon and had them embellished with gold and silver. The priests and all of the attending dancers, singers and attendants had their positions restored and a decree of royal protection granted to insure their future stability.[52]

Tutankhamun’s second year as pharaoh began the return to the old Egyptian order. Both he and his queen removed ‘Aten’ from their names, replacing it with Amun and moved the capital from Akhetaten to Thebes. He renounced the god Aten, relegating it to obscurity and returned Egyptian religion to its polytheistic form. His first act as a pharaoh was to remove his father’s mummy from his tomb at Akhetaten and rebury it in the Valley of the Kings. This helped strengthen his reign. Tutankhamun rebuilt the stelae, shrines, and buildings at Karnak. He added works to Luxor as well as beginning the restoration of other temples throughout Egypt that were pillaged by Akhenaten.[53]

Campaigns, monuments, and construction

Tutankhamun charging enemies, 18th dynasty

The country was economically weak and in turmoil following the reign of Akhenaten. Diplomatic relations with other kingdoms had been neglected, and Tutankhamun sought to restore them, in particular with the Mitanni. Evidence of his success is suggested by the gifts from various countries found in his tomb. Despite his efforts for improved relations, battles with Nubians and Asiatics were recorded in his mortuary temple at Thebes. His tomb contained body armor, folding stools appropriate for military campaigns, and bows, and he was trained in archery.[54] However, given his youth and physical disabilities, which seemed to require the use of a cane in order to walk, most historians speculate that he did not personally take part in these battles.[11][55]

Given his age, the king probably had advisers which presumably included Ay (who succeeded Tutankhamun) and General Horemheb, Ay’s possible son in law and successor. Horemheb records that the king appointed him «lord of the land» as hereditary prince to maintain law. He also noted his ability to calm the young king when his temper flared.[55]

In his third regnal year Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father’s reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten was abandoned.[56] As part of his restoration, the king initiated building projects, in particular at Karnak in Thebes, where he laid out the sphinx avenue leading to the temple of Mut. The sphinxes were originally made for Akhenaten and Nefertiti; they were given new ram heads and small statues of the king.[57] At Luxor temple he completed the decoration of the entrance colonnade of Amenhotep III.[58] Monuments defaced under Akhenaten were restored, and new cult images of the god Amun were created. The traditional festivals were now celebrated again, including those related to the Apis Bull, Horemakhet, and Opet. His Restoration Stela erected in front of Karnak temple says:

The temples of the gods and goddesses … were in ruins. Their shrines were deserted and overgrown. Their sanctuaries were as non-existent and their courts were used as roads … the gods turned their backs upon this land … If anyone made a prayer to a god for advice he would never respond.[59]

A building called the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-Beloved-of-Amun-Who-Puts-Thebes-in-Order, which may be identical to a building called Temple-of-Nebkheperre-in-Thebes, a possible mortuary temple, used recycled talatat from Akhenaten’s east Karnak Aten temples indicating that the dismantling of these temples was already underway.[60] Many of Tutankhamun’s construction projects were uncompleted at the time of his death and were completed by or usurped by his successors, especially Horemheb. The sphinx avenue was completed by his successor Ay and the whole was usurped by Horemheb. The Restoration Stele was usurped by Horemheb; pieces of the Temple-of-Nebkheperure-in-Thebes were recycled into Horemheb’s own building projects.[61]

Health and death

A painted, wooden figure of Tutankhamun suggested to be a mannequin for clothing

Tutankhamun was slight of build, and roughly 167 cm (5 ft 6 in) tall.[62][63] He had large front incisors and an overbite characteristic of the Thutmosid royal line to which he belonged.[64] Analysis of the clothing found in his tomb, particularly the dimensions of his loincloths and belts indicates that he had a narrow waist and rounded hips.[65] In attempts to explain both his unusual depiction in art and his early death it has been theorised that Tutankhamun had gynecomastia,[66] Marfan syndrome, Wilson–Turner X-linked intellectual disability syndrome, Fröhlich syndrome (adiposogenital dystrophy), Klinefelter syndrome,[67] androgen insensitivity syndrome, aromatase excess syndrome in conjunction with sagittal craniosynostosis syndrome, Antley–Bixler syndrome or one of its variants.[68] It has also been suggested that he had inherited temporal lobe epilepsy in a bid to explain the religiosity of his great-grandfather Thutmose IV and father Akhenaten and their early deaths.[69] However, caution has been urged in this diagnosis.[70]

In 1980, James Harris and Edward F. Wente conducted X-ray examinations of New Kingdom Pharaoh’s crania and skeletal remains, which included the mummified remains of Tutankhamun. The authors determined that the royal mummies of the 18th Dynasty bore strong similarities to contemporary Nubians with slight differences.[71]

In January 2005 Tutankhamun’s mummy was CT scanned. The results showed that the young king had a partially cleft hard palate and possibly a mild case of scoliosis.[72][73] Additionally, he was diagnosed with a flat right foot with hypophalangism, while his left foot was clubbed and had bone necrosis of the second and third metatarsals (Freiberg disease or Köhler disease II).[74] However, the clubfoot diagnosis is disputed.[75] James Gamble instead suggests that the position is a result of Tutankhamun habitually walking on the outside of his foot due to the pain caused by Köhler disease II;[76] this theory has been refuted by members of Hawass’ team.[77] The condition may have forced Tutankhamun to walk with the use of a cane, many of which were found in his tomb.[30] However, none of them show the wear expected of essential aids; the wear on his sandals, where present, is also even on both feet.[78] The presence of such a number of sticks is not unexpected, as canes were a symbol of status in ancient Egypt.[79] Genetic testing through STR analysis rejected the hypothesis of gynecomastia and craniosynostoses (e.g., Antley–Bixler syndrome) or Marfan syndrome.[11] Genetic testing for STEVOR, AMA1, or MSP1 genes specific for Plasmodium falciparum revealed indications of malaria tropica in 4 mummies, including Tutankhamun’s.[11] This is currently the oldest known genetic proof of the ailment.[80] The team discovered DNA from several strains of the parasite, indicating that he was repeatedly infected with the most severe strain of malaria. His malaria infections may have caused a fatal immune response in the body or triggered circulatory shock.[81] The CT scan also showed that he had experienced a compound left leg fracture. This injury being the result of modern damage was ruled out based on the ragged edges of the fracture; modern damage features sharp edges. Embalming substances were present within the fracture indicating that it was associated with an open wound; no signs of healing were present.[82]

Close-up of Tutankhamun’s mummified head

A facial reconstruction of Tutankhamun was carried out in 2005 by the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities and National Geographic. Three separate teams—Egyptian, French, and American—worked separately to approximate the face of the boy king. While the Egyptian and French teams knew their subject was Tutankhamun, the American team worked blind. All teams produced very similar results, but it was that of the French team that was ultimately cast in silicone.[83][84]

Stuart Tyson Smith, Egyptologist and professor of anthropology at University of California, Santa Barbara, in 2008 expressed criticism of the forensic reconstruction in a journal review. He noted that “Tutankhamun’s face” was depicted as “very light-skinned” which reflected a “bias” among media outlets. Smith further added that “Egyptologists have been strangely reluctant to admit that the ancient Egyptians were rather dark-skinned Africans, especially the farther south one goes”.[85]

Cause of death

There are no surviving records of the circumstances of Tutankhamun’s death; it has been the subject of considerable debate and major studies.[86]
Hawass and his team postulate that his death was likely the result of the combination of his multiple weakening disorders, a leg fracture, perhaps as the result of a fall, and a severe malarial infection.[87] However, Timmann and Meyer have argued that sickle cell anemia better fits the pathologies exhibited by the king,[88] a suggestion the Egyptian team has called «interesting and plausible».[89]

Murder by a blow to the head was theorised as a result of the 1968 x-ray which showed two bone fragments inside the skull.[90] This theory was disproved by further analysis of the x-rays and the CT scan. The inter-cranial bone fragments were determined to be the result of the modern unwrapping of the mummy as they are loose and not adherent to the embalming resin.[91] No evidence of bone thinning or calcified membranes, which could be indicative of a fatal blow to the head, were found.[92] It has also been suggested that the young king was killed in a chariot accident due to a pattern of crushing injuries, including the fact that the front part of his chest wall and ribs are missing.[93][94] However, the missing ribs are unlikely to be a result of an injury sustained at the time of death; photographs taken at the conclusion of Carter’s excavation in 1926 show that the chest wall of the king was intact, still wearing a beaded collar with falcon-headed terminals. The absence of both the collar and chest wall was noted in the 1968 x-ray[95] and further confirmed by the CT scan.[73] It is likely that the front part of his chest was removed by robbers during the theft of the beaded collar; the intricate beaded skullcap the king was pictured wearing in 1926 was also missing by 1968.[96]

Tomb

Diagram of Tutankhamun’s tomb

Tutankhamun was buried in a tomb that was unusually small considering his status. His death may have occurred unexpectedly, before the completion of a grander royal tomb, causing his mummy to be buried in a tomb intended for someone else. This would preserve the observance of the customary 70 days between death and burial.[97] His tomb was robbed at least twice in antiquity, but based on the items taken (including perishable oils and perfumes) and the evidence of restoration of the tomb after the intrusions, these robberies likely took place within several months at most of the initial burial. The location of the tomb was lost because it had come to be buried by debris from subsequent tombs, and workers’ houses were built over the tomb entrance.[98]

Rediscovery

The concession rights for excavating the Valley of the Kings was held by Theodore Davis from 1905 until 1914. In that time, he had unearthed ten tombs including the nearly intact but non-royal tomb of Queen Tiye’s parents, Yuya and Thuya. As he continued working there in the later years, he uncovered nothing of major significance.[99] Davis did find several objects in KV58 referring to Tutankhamun, which included knobs and handles bearing his name most significantly the embalming cache of the king (KV54). He believed this to be the pharaoh’s lost tomb and published his findings as such with the line; «I fear the Valley of the Tombs is exhausted».[100][101] In 1907, Howard Carter was invited by William Garstin and Gaston Maspero to excavate for George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon in the Valley. The Earl of Carnarvon and Carter had hoped this would lead to their gaining the concession when Davis gave it up but had to be satisfied with excavations in different parts of the Theban Necropolis for seven more years.[102]

After a systematic search beginning in 1915, Carter discovered the actual tomb of Tutankhamun (KV62) in November 1922.[103] An ancient stroke of luck allowed the tomb to survive to modern times. The tomb’s entrance was buried by mounds of debris from the cutting of KV9 over 150 years after Tutankhamun’s burial; ancient workmen’s huts were also built on the site.[104][105] This area remained unexcavated until 1922 due to its proximity to KV9, as excavations would impede tourist access to that tomb.[106] Carter commenced excavations in early November 1922, before the height of the tourist season.[107] The first step of the tomb’s entrance staircase was uncovered on 4 November 1922. According to Carter’s account the workmen discovered the step while digging beneath the remains of the huts; other accounts attribute the discovery to a boy digging outside the assigned work area.[108][i]

By February 1923 the antechamber had been cleared of everything but two sentinel statues. A day and time were selected to unseal the tomb with about twenty appointed witnesses that included Lord Carnarvon, several Egyptian officials, museum representatives and the staff of the Government Press Bureau. On 17 February 1923 at just after two o’clock, the seal was broken.[112]

Letters published in 2022 of correspondence between Rex Engelbach and Alan Gardiner, reveal that Howard Carter had stolen objects from the tomb, such as a ‘whm amulet’, before the tomb was officially opened. Rex Engelbach said in a letter to Gardiner about a ‘whm amulet’ gifted to Gardiner from Carter that “The whm amulet you showed me has been undoubtedly stolen from the tomb of Tutankhamun.”[113]

Contents

An alabaster stopper from his canopic chest

There were 5,398 items found in the tomb, including a solid gold coffin, face mask, thrones, archery bows, trumpets, a lotus chalice, two Imiut fetishes, gold toe stalls, furniture, food, wine, sandals, and fresh linen underwear. Howard Carter took 10 years to catalog the items.[114] Recent analysis suggests a dagger recovered from the tomb had an iron blade made from a meteorite; study of artifacts of the time including other artifacts from Tutankhamun’s tomb could provide valuable insights into metalworking technologies around the Mediterranean at the time.[115][116] Many of Tutankhamun’s burial goods show signs of being adapted for his use after being originally made for earlier owners, probably Smenkhkare or Neferneferuaten or both.[117][118][119]

On 4 November 2007, 85 years to the day after Carter’s discovery, Tutankhamun’s mummy was placed on display in his underground tomb at Luxor, when the linen-wrapped mummy was removed from its golden sarcophagus to a climate-controlled glass box. The case was designed to prevent the heightened rate of decomposition caused by the humidity and warmth from tourists visiting the tomb.[120] In 2009, the tomb was closed for restoration by the Ministry of antiquities and the Getty Conservation Institute. While the closure was originally planned for five years to restore the walls affected by humidity, the Egyptian revolution of 2011 set the project back. The tomb re-opened in February 2019.[121]

Rumored curse

For many years, rumors of a «curse of the pharaohs» (probably fueled by newspapers seeking sales at the time of the discovery[122]) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had entered the tomb. The most prominent was George Herbert, 5th Earl of Carnarvon, who died on 5 April 1923, five months after the discovery of the first step leading down to the tomb on 4 November 1922.[123]

The cause of Carnarvon’s death was pneumonia supervening on [facial] erysipelas (a streptococcal infection of the skin and underlying soft tissue).[124] The Earl had been in an automobile accident in 1901 making him very unhealthy and frail. His doctor recommended a warmer climate so in 1903 the Carnarvons traveled to Egypt where the Earl became interested in Egyptology.[123] Along with the stresses of the excavation, Carnarvon was already in a weakened state when an infection led to pneumonia.[125]

A study showed that of the 58 people who were present when the tomb and sarcophagus were opened, only eight died within a dozen years;[126] Howard Carter died of lymphoma in 1939 at the age of 64.[127] The last survivors included Lady Evelyn Herbert, Lord Carnarvon’s daughter who was among the first people to enter the tomb after its discovery in November 1922, who lived for a further 57 years and died in 1980,[128] and American archaeologist J.O. Kinnaman who died in 1961, 39 years after the event.[129]

Legacy

The «Egyptian Number» of Life, 19 April 1923

Tutankhamun’s fame is primarily the result of his well-preserved tomb and the global exhibitions of his associated artifacts. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his foreword to the 1977 edition of Carter’s The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, «The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt’s Pharaohs has become in death the most renowned».[130]

The discoveries in the tomb were prominent news in the 1920s. Tutankhamen came to be called by a modern neologism, «King Tut». Ancient Egyptian references became common in popular culture, including Tin Pan Alley songs; the most popular of the latter was «Old King Tut» by Harry Von Tilzer from 1923,[131][132] which was recorded by such prominent artists of the time as Jones & Hare[133] and Sophie Tucker.[131] «King Tut» became the name of products, businesses, and the pet dog of U.S. President Herbert Hoover.[134] While The Treasures of Tutankhamun exhibit was touring the United States in 1978, comedian Steve Martin wrote a novelty song King Tut. Originally performed on Saturday Night Live, the song was released as a single and sold over a million copies.[135]

International exhibitions

San Francisco’s M. H. de Young Memorial Museum hosted an exhibition of Tutankhamun artifacts in 2009[136]

Tutankhamun’s artifacts have traveled the world with unprecedented visitorship.[137] The exhibitions began in 1962 when Algeria won its independence from France. With the ending of that conflict, the Louvre Museum in Paris was quickly able to arrange an exhibition of Tutankhamun’s treasures through Christiane Desroches Noblecourt. The French Egyptologist was already in Egypt as part of a UNESCO appointment. The French exhibit drew 1.2 million visitors. Noblecourt had also convinced the Egyptian Minister of Culture to allow British photographer George Rainbird to re-photograph the collection in color. The new color photos as well as the Louvre exhibition began a Tutankhamun revival.[138]

In 1965, the Tutankhamun exhibit traveled to Tokyo National Museum in Tokyo, Japan (21 August–10 October)[139] where it garnered more visitors than the future New York exhibit in 1979. The exhibit next moved to the Kyoto Municipal Museum of Art in Kyoto (15 October–28 November)[139] with almost 1.75 million visitors, and then to the Fukuoka Prefectural Cultural Hall in Fukuoka (3 December–26 December).[139] The blockbuster attraction exceeded all other exhibitions of Tutankhamun’s treasures for the next 60 years.[137][140] The Treasures of Tutankhamun tour ran from 1972 to 1979. This exhibition was first shown in London at the British Museum from 30 March until 30 September 1972. More than 1.6 million visitors saw the exhibition.[137][141] The exhibition moved on to many other countries, including the United States, Soviet Union, Japan, France, Canada, and West Germany. The Metropolitan Museum of Art organized the U.S. exhibition, which ran from 17 November 1976 through 15 April 1979. More than eight million attended.[142][143]

In 2005, Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with Arts and Exhibitions International and the National Geographic Society, launched a tour of Tutankhamun treasures and other 18th Dynasty funerary objects, this time called Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs. It featured the same exhibits as Tutankhamen: The Golden Hereafter in a slightly different format. It was expected to draw more than three million people but exceeded that with almost four million people attending just the first four tour stops.[144] The exhibition started in Los Angeles, then moved to Fort Lauderdale, Chicago, Philadelphia and London before finally returning to Egypt in August 2008. An encore of the exhibition in the United States ran at the Dallas Museum of Art.[145] After Dallas the exhibition moved to the de Young Museum in San Francisco, followed by the Discovery Times Square Exposition in New York City.[146]

Tutankhamun exhibition in 2018

The exhibition visited Australia for the first time, opening at the Melbourne Museum for its only Australian stop before Egypt’s treasures returned to Cairo in December 2011.[147]

The exhibition included 80 exhibits from the reigns of Tutankhamun’s immediate predecessors in the 18th Dynasty, such as Hatshepsut, whose trade policies greatly increased the wealth of that dynasty and enabled the lavish wealth of Tutankhamun’s burial artifacts, as well as 50 from Tutankhamun’s tomb. The exhibition did not include the gold mask that was a feature of the 1972–1979 tour, as the Egyptian government has decided that damage which occurred to previous artifacts on tours precludes this one from joining them.[148]

In 2018, it was announced that the largest collection of Tutankhamun artifacts, amounting to forty percent of the entire collection, would be leaving Egypt again in 2019 for an international tour entitled; «King Tut: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh».[149] The 2019–2022 tour began with an exhibit called; «Tutankhamun, Pharaoh’s Treasures,» which launched in Los Angeles and then traveled to Paris. The exhibit featured at the Grande Halle de la Villette in Paris ran from March to September 2019. The exhibit featured one hundred and fifty gold coins, along with various pieces of jewelry, sculpture and carvings, as well as the renowned gold mask of Tutankhamun. Promotion of the exhibit filled the streets of Paris with posters of the event. The exhibit moved to London in November 2019 and was scheduled to travel to Boston and Sydney when the COVID-19 pandemic interrupted the tour. On 28 August 2020 the artifacts that made up the temporary exhibition returned to the Egyptian Museum, Cairo, and other institutions.[150] The treasures will be permanently housed in the new Grand Egyptian Museum in Cairo, expected to open in November 2022.[151][152]

Ancestry

  • v
  • t
  • e

Tutankhamun ascending family history

Based on genetic testing and archeological evidence

Thutmose IV (m) Mutemwiya (f) Tjuyu (f)[i] Yuya (m)[i]
Amenhotep III (m)[i] Tiye (f)[i]
Body identified as KV35EL
Nefertiti (f) Akhenaten (m)[i]
Body identified in KV55
The Younger Lady (f)[i]
Body identified as KV35YL
Possibly Nebetah or Beketaten
Ankhesenamun (f)
Body believed to be KV21A
Tutankhamun (m)[i]
Child 1 (f) Child 2 (f)

Explanatory notes and reference sources

Notes:

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Cooney — Jasno — pp. 219 — 220
    «DNA indicated a probability in excess of 99.99%» that Amenhotep III was the father of the man interred in KV55. The probability that the man interred in KV55 is the father of Tutankhamun was equally as great.» «[T]he lock of hair found in Tutankhamun’s tomb seemed to link him in some intimate way to KV35EL». «Tiye’s parents, Yuya and Thuya, had been found..» «..genetic analysis confirmed KV35EL as their daughter.» «Furthermore, and as anticipated, the KV55 mummy genetically matched as the offspring of KV35EL.» «Perhaps the most curious results of the genetic fingerprinting came from KV35YL. She proved to be not only a daughter of Amenhotep III and Tiye but also the mother of Tutankhamun.»[α]
  1. ^ Cooney, Kathlyn M.; Jasnow, Richard (25 August 2015). Joyful in Thebes: Egyptological Studies in Honor of Betsy M. Bryan. Lockwood Press. ISBN 978-1-937040-41-3.

See also

  • Anubis Shrine
  • Head of Nefertem
  • Tutankhamun’s mummy
  • Tutankhamun’s meteoric iron dagger
  • Tutankhamun’s trumpets

Notes

  1. ^ Egyptological pronunciation
  2. ^ The relief depicts a child in the arms of a nurse outside a chamber in which Meketaten is being mourned by her parents and siblings, which has been interpreted to indicate she died in childbirth.[23]
  3. ^ Part of this interpretation is based on the inscribed block from Hermopolis, which names a ‘King’s Son’ in conjunction with a ‘King’s Daughter’.[25]
  4. ^ Tutankhamun’s Horus Name was Ka nakht tut mesut,[3] translated as; Victorious bull, the (very) image of (re)birth.[4]
  5. ^ His second full nomen (also called the Son of Re Name) was; Tut ankh imen, heqa iunu shemau, translated as; The living image of Amun, Ruler of Southern Heliopolis.[4]
  6. ^ Tutankahmun’s Nebty or Two Ladies Name was; (1): Nefer hepu, segereh tawy,[3] translated as; Perfect of laws, who has quieted down the Two Lands.[4] (2): Nefer hepu, segereh tawy sehetep netjeru nebu, translated as; Perfect of laws, who has quieted down the Two Lands and pacified all the gods.[4] (3): Wer ah imen, translated as; The great one of the palace of Amun.[49]
  7. ^ Tutankhamun’s Gold Falcon Name was: (1): Wetjes khau, sehetep netjeru[3] translated as; Elevated of appearances, who has satisfied the gods.[4] *Gold Falcon name (2): Wetjes khau it ef ra, translates as; Who has elevated the appearances of his father Re.[49]
  8. ^ Tutankhamun’s Prenomen (Throne Name) was: Neb kheperu re,[3][49] translated as: The possessor of the manifestation of Re.[4] which had an epithet added: Heqa maat, translated as; Ruler of Maat.[49]
  9. ^ Karl Kitchen, a reporter for the Boston Globe, wrote in 1924 that a boy named Mohamed Gorgar had found the step; he interviewed Gorgar, who did not say whether the story was true.[109] Lee Keedick, the organiser of Carter’s American lecture tour, said Carter attributed the discovery to an unnamed boy carrying water for the workmen.[110] Many recent accounts, such as the 2018 book Tutankhamun: Treasures of the Golden Pharaoh by the Egyptologist Zahi Hawass, identify the water-boy as Hussein Abd el-Rassul, a member of a prominent local family. Hawass says he heard this story from el-Rassul in person. Another Egyptologist, Christina Riggs, suggests the story may instead be a conflation of Keedick’s account, which was widely publicised by the 1978 book Tutankhamun: The Untold Story by Thomas Hoving, with el-Rassul’s long-standing claim to have been the boy who was photographed wearing one of Tutankhamun’s pectorals in 1926.[111]

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  • Osing, Jürgen; Dreyer, Günter (1987). Form und Mass: Beiträge zur Literatur, Sprache und Kunst des alten Ägypten : Festschrift für Gerhard Fecht zum 65. Geburtstag am 6. Februar 1987. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 978-3-447-02704-5.
  • Redford, Donald B. (2003). The Oxford Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology. Berkley Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-425-19096-8.
  • Reeves, Carl Nicholas (1990). The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 978-0-500-27810-9. OCLC 1104938097.
  • Reeves, Nicholas (2015). «Tutankhamun’s Mask Reconsidered (2015)». Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar. 19: 511–526. Retrieved 7 September 2019 – via Academia.edu.
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Further reading

  • Andritsos, John. Social Studies of Ancient Egypt: Tutankhamun. Australia 2006.
  • Brier, Bob. The Murder of Tutankhamun: A True Story. Putnam Adult, 13 April 1998, ISBN 0-425-16689-9 (paperback), ISBN 0-399-14383-1 (hardcover), ISBN 0-613-28967-6 (School & Library Binding).
  • Carter, Howard and Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun. Courier Dover Publications, 1 June 1977, ISBN 0-486-23500-9 The semi-popular account of the discovery and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible.
  • Desroches-Noblecourt, Christiane. Sarwat Okasha (Preface), Tutankhamun: Life and Death of a Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0-8212-0151-4 (1976 reprint, hardcover), ISBN 0-14-011665-6 (1990 reprint, paperback).
  • Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The Mummy of Tutankhamun: The CT Scan Report, as printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005.
  • Haag, Michael. The Rough Guide to Tutankhamun: The King: The Treasure: The Dynasty. London 2005. ISBN 1-84353-554-8.
  • Hoving, Thomas. The Search for Tutankhamun: The Untold Story of Adventure and Intrigue Surrounding the Greatest Modern archeological find. New York: Simon & Schuster, 15 October 1978, ISBN 0-671-24305-5 (hardcover), ISBN 0-8154-1186-3 (paperback) This book details a number of anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb.
  • James, T. G. H. Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, 1 September 2000, ISBN 1-58663-032-6 (hardcover) A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects.
  • Neubert, Otto. Tutankhamun and the Valley of the Kings. London: Granada Publishing Limited, 1972, ISBN 0-583-12141-1 (paperback) First hand account of the discovery of the Tomb.
  • Rossi, Renzo. Tutankhamun. Cincinnati (Ohio) 2007 ISBN 978-0-7153-2763-0, a work all illustrated and coloured.

External links

  • Grim secrets of Pharaoh’s city—BBC News
  • Tutankhamun and the Age of the Golden Pharaohs website
  • British Museum Tutankhamun highlight
  • «Swiss geneticists examine Tutankhamun’s genetic profile» by Reuters
  • Ultimate Tut Documentary produced by the PBS Series Secrets of the Dead

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