Coordinates: 60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W
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Canada |
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Flag
Coat of arms |
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| Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin) «From Sea to Sea» |
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| Anthem: «O Canada»
Royal anthem: «God Save the King»[1] |
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| Capital | Ottawa 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W |
| Largest city | Toronto |
| Official languages |
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| Demonym(s) | Canadian |
| Government | Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
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• Monarch |
Charles III |
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• Governor General |
Mary Simon |
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• Prime Minister |
Justin Trudeau |
| Legislature | Parliament |
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• Upper house |
Senate |
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• Lower house |
House of Commons |
| Independence
from the United Kingdom |
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• Confederation |
July 1, 1867 |
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• Statute of Westminster, 1931 |
December 11, 1931 |
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• Patriation |
April 17, 1982 |
| Area | |
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• Total area |
9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd) |
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• Water (%) |
11.76 (2015)[2] |
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• Total land area |
9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi) |
| Population | |
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• 2022 estimate |
 39,292,355[3] (37th) |
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• 2021 census |
36,991,981[4] |
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• Density |
4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (236th) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2022 estimate |
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• Total |
 $2.240 trillion[5] (15th) |
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• Per capita |
$57,827[5] (23rd) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate |
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• Total |
$2.200 trillion[5] (8th) |
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• Per capita |
$56,794[5] (11th) |
| Gini (2018) |  30.3[6]medium |
| HDI (2021) | 0.936[7] very high · 15th |
| Currency | Canadian dollar ($) (CAD) |
| Time zone | UTC−3.5 to −8 |
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• Summer (DST) |
UTC−2.5 to −7 |
| Date format | yyyy—mm—dd (AD)[8] |
| Driving side | right |
| Calling code | +1 |
| Internet TLD | .ca |
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world’s second-largest country by total area. Its southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world’s longest binational land border. Canada’s capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.
Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country’s head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons, and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) at the federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, education, gender equality and environmental sustainability. It is one of the world’s most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada’s long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy and culture.
A highly developed country, Canada has the 24th highest nominal per capita income globally and the fifteenth-highest ranking on the Human Development Index. Its advanced economy is the eighth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, NATO, G7, Group of Ten, G20, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Trade Organization (WTO), Commonwealth of Nations, Arctic Council, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and Organization of American States.
Etymology
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning «village» or «settlement».[9] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[10] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[10] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[10]
From the 16th to the early 18th century, «Canada» referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[11] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[12]
Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country’s title.[13] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a «Realm of the Commonwealth».[14] The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.[15][16][17]
The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[18] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[19]
History
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,[20] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.[20]
The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[21][22] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[23] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[24][25] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[26]
The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[27] and two million,[28] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada’s Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[29] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.[30] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,[27][31] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations’ self-sufficiency.[32][33]
Although not without conflict, European Canadians’ early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[34] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[35] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.[36][37] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.[38] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.[39] A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[40] This includes recognition of past colonial injustices, settlement agreements and betterment of racial discrimination issues such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.[41][42]
European colonization
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War, which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years’ War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), New France (blue), and Spain (orange; California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated)
It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[43][44] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L’Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[45] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada’s Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[46] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words «Long Live the King of France» and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[47] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[48] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[49][50]
In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John’s, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.[51] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.[45] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).[52] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.[53] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[54]
The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[55][56] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years’ War.[57] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years’ War.[58]
British North America
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[18] St. John’s Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[59] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec’s territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[60] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[61] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[62] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[18]
After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[63] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada’s first city.[64] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[65]
The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[66] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[67] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[68] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[27]
The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.[69] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[18] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.[70] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[71] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.[72]
Confederation and expansion
Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[73][74] Canada assumed control of Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis’ grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[75] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[76] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[77] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[77] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[78]
To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.[79][80] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to «Indian reserves»,[81] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.[82] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.[83] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.[84] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.[85] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.[86]
Early 20th century
French version of the poster roughly translates as «They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds».
The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. «They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds».
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada’s foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[87] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[88] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[89] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet’s proposal to augment the military’s dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[90] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[90] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[88] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada’s independence.[91]
The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[92] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[93] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada’s independence.[88]
The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.[94] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[88] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[95]
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[88] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[96]
Contemporary era
The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[97] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[98]
Canada’s post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[99] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[100] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[101] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[102]
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada’s constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[103][104][105] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.[106][107] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada’s third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[108]
At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[109] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970[110] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[111] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[112][113] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[114] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[111]
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[115] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[116] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[117] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups.[118] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[119] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[120]
In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War,[121] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[122] The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began, on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption.[123] In 2021, the remains of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.[124] Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.[125]
Geography
A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)
By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia.[126] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world’s largest area of fresh water lakes.[127] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory.[128] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world’s longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).[129][130] In addition to sharing the world’s largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast on Hans Island[131] and a maritime boundary with France’s overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.[132] Canada is also home to the world’s northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[133]
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago.[134] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.[128] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada’s economic output.[128] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world’s fresh water.[135][136] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera.[137] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[138]
Climate
Köppen climate classification types of Canada
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[139] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[140]
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[141] Canada’s annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[128] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world’s fresh water.<ref»>» /> The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[142] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.[143]
Biodiversity
Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones.[144] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.[145] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,[146] due to human activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.[147] About 65 percent of Canada’s resident species are considered «Secure».[148] Over half of Canada’s landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.[149] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.[150] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,[151] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world’s forested land).[152]
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation’s landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[153] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[153] Canada’s first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi)[154] of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes.[155] Canada’s oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers.[156] Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world’s largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of islands and mainland.[157] Canada’s largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi)[158] and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia’s seabirds.[159] Canada’s 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).[160]
Government and politics
Canada is described as a «full democracy»,[161] with a tradition of liberalism,[162] and an egalitarian,[163] moderate political ideology.[164] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada’s political culture.[165][166] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.[167][168]
At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising «brokerage politics»,[a] the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).[175] Historically, the Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum,[176][177] with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left.[178][179] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.[180][181][182] Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberal Party, who currently form a minority government; the Conservative Party, who are the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party of Canada.[183]
Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[184][185][186][187] The reigning monarch is King Charles III, who is also monarch of 14 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada’s 10 provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the British monarch, although the two institutions are separate.[188] The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, with the advice of the prime minister to carry out most of their federal royal duties in Canada.[189][190]
While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada, in practice its position is symbolic.[187][191][192] The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),[193] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[191] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[194] The Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[191] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[195]
Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections in Canada must be called by the governor general, triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.[196][197] The Constitution Act, 1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[198]
Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[192] Canada’s three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[199] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[200]
The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science and industry use the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.[201] The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.[202] The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.[203]
Law
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[204] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[205] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[206] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[207]
Canada’s judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada.[208] The governor general appoints its nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[209]
Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.[210] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[211] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[212] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[213]
Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.[214] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.[215] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.[216] These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and accommodate.[217] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.[215] These rights may include provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.[218]
Foreign relations and military
Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[219] Canada’s foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions.[220][221] Canada’s peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.[222][223] The strategy of the Canadian government’s foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.[224]
Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization, the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[219] Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.[225] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.[226] Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.[227] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[228]
Canada and the United States share the world’s longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other’s largest trading partner.[229][230] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy.[231] For example, it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[232]
Canada maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada’s membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.[233] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.[95]
Canada’s strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945).[234] Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[235][236] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[237]
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[238] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[239] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[88] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.[240]
In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.[241] In August 2007, Canada’s territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[242]
The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel, increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under «Strong, Secure, Engaged»[243] with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.[244][b] In 2021, Canada’s military expenditure totalled approximately $26.4 billion, or around 1.3 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP).[246] Canada’s total military expenditure is expected to reach $32.7 billion by 2027.[247] Canada’s military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple operations, such as Operation Snowgoose in Cyprus, Operation Unifier supporting Ukraine, Operation Caribbe in the Caribbean Sea, and Operation Impact, a coalition for the military intervention against ISIL.[248]
Provinces and territories
Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories
Canada is a federation composed of ten federated states called provinces and three federal territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[249] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare,[250] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, a rarity among other federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and child care; the provinces can opt out of these cost-share programs but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[251]
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.[252] The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.[253] As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[254]
Economy
The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada’s finance industry.[255]
Canada has a highly developed mixed-market economy,[256][257] with the world’s eighth-largest economy as of 2022, and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221 trillion.[258] It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world[259] and is one of the world’s largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[260] Canada’s economy ranks above the US and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation’s Index of Economic Freedom[261] and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.[262] The country’s average household disposable income per capita is «well above» the OECD average.[263] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[264]
In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.[265] Canada’s exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.[265] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.[265]
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada’s manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[266] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country’s workforce.[267] Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[268]
Canada
Countries and territories with free-trade agreements
Canada’s economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.[269] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada’s borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.[270] In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[271] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney’s Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada to encourage foreign investment.[272] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).[273] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world’s highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[274]
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[268][275] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, comprising the world’s third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[276] Canada is additionally one of the world’s largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[277] The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[278] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[279]
Science and technology
In 2019, Canada spent approximately $40.3 billion on domestic research and development, of which over $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[280] As of 2020, the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[281] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[282] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[283] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[284] Canada was ranked 15th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022.[285]
Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,[286] Insulin,[287] and the polio vaccine[288] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[289] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[290][291] the development of the electron microscope,[292][293] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[294] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and early-onset Alzheimer’s disease, among numerous other diseases.[291][295]
The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.[296] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[297] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA’s Space Shuttle.[298] Since the 1960s, Canada’s aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[299] Canada has also produced one of the world’s most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket’s introduction in 1961.[300]
Demographics
The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[302] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[303] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[304] driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification.[305][306] A record number of 405,000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021.[307] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[308] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.[309][310]
Canada’s population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[302] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[311] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[312] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[301][311]
The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and those living with other relatives or unrelated persons reported at 6.8 percent.[313] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.[313]
Largest metropolitan areas in Canada 2021 Canadian census |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. |
| 1 | Toronto | Ontario | 6,202,225 | 11 | London | Ontario | 543,551 |
| 2 | Montreal | Quebec | 4,291,732 | 12 | Halifax | Nova Scotia | 465,703 |
| 3 | Vancouver | British Columbia | 2,642,825 | 13 | St. Catharines–Niagara | Ontario | 433,604 |
| 4 | Ottawa–Gatineau | Ontario–Quebec | 1,488,307 | 14 | Windsor | Ontario | 422,630 |
| 5 | Calgary | Alberta | 1,481,806 | 15 | Oshawa | Ontario | 415,311 |
| 6 | Edmonton | Alberta | 1,418,118 | 16 | Victoria | British Columbia | 397,237 |
| 7 | Quebec City | Quebec | 839,311 | 17 | Saskatoon | Saskatchewan | 317,480 |
| 8 | Winnipeg | Manitoba | 834,678 | 18 | Regina | Saskatchewan | 249,217 |
| 9 | Hamilton | Ontario | 785,184 | 19 | Sherbrooke | Quebec | 227,398 |
| 10 | Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo | Ontario | 575,847 | 20 | Kelowna | British Columbia | 222,162 |
Health
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[314][315] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[316] and is universal.[317] Universal access to publicly funded health services «is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country.»[318] Around 30 percent of Canadians’ healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[319] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[319] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[320][319]
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age in Canada was 39.5 years;[321] it rose to 42.4 years by 2018[322] before falling slightly to 41.9 in 2021.[313] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[323] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they «had good or very good health».[324] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[325] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined).[325] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[326][327]
In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308 billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada’s GDP for that year.[328] Canada’s per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 4th among health-care systems in the OECD.[329] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[330][331] The Commonwealth Fund’s 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[332] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[332] An increasing problem in Canada’s health system is a lack of healthcare professionals.[333][334][335]
Education
Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[336] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.[337][338] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[339] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[340] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[341] The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.[342] Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.[343]
According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[344] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[344] Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[345] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[346] As of 2014, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[347]
The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[348] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[322] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,[349][350] ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world, although these scores have been declining in recent years. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[351][352]
Ethnicity
A map showing the largest ethnic or cultural origins in Canada by census division in 2021:
|
Canadian/ English Irish Scottish French German Chinese Indian Ukrainian |
Métis Acadian Mennonite Inuit Cree Ojibway Dene Heiltsuk |
According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 «ethnic or cultural origins» were self-reported by Canadians.[353] The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent).[353][354] Statistics Canada reports that 35.5 percent of the population reported multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.[353]
The country’s ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[c] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).[358]
Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being «White», representing 69.8 percent of the population.[359] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[360] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[361][d] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).[359]
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[363] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada’s population, were members of visible minority groups.[364] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.[365] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[366]
Languages
Approximately 98 percent of Canadians can speak either or both English and French:[367]
English – 56.9%
English and French – 16.1%
French – 21.3%
Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km2)
A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.[368] As of the 2021 Census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), and German (272,865).[368] Canada’s federal government practices official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[369]
The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[370] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[371] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[372] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[373]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[374] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[375] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[376] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[377]
Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[378] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[379] Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.[380]
Religion
Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Although the Constitution of Canada refers to God and the monarch carries the title of «Defender of the Faith», Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[381] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[382]
The «Fundamental Freedoms» section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states:[383]
2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:
- (a) freedom of conscience and religion;
- (b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication;
- (c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
- (d) freedom of association.
The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[384] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[385] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[386][387][388][389] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[390] but still believe in God.[391]
According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics having the most adherents. Christians, representing 53.3 percent of the population in 2021, are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.[392] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).[393][394] Rates of religious adherence are steadily decreasing.[395][396] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.[397][398]
Culture
Canada’s culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a «just society» are constitutionally protected.[399][400][401] Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[402][403] The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada’s significant accomplishments,[404] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[405][406] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[407] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.[408][409]
Canada’s approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.[410] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women’s rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBTQ rights, legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada’s political and cultural values.[411][412][413] Canadians also identify with the country’s foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[414][415]
Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[416] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[417] Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.[418]
Symbols
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[420] Modern symbols emphasize the country’s geography, cold climate, lifestyles and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[421] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada’s current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.[422] Canada’s official tartan, known as the «maple leaf tartan», has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[423] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[424]
Other prominent symbols include the national motto «A mari usque ad mare» («From Sea to Sea»),[425] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,[422] and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk.[426] Material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.[426][427] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.[428] The penny, removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.[429] An image of the previous monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.[428]
Literature
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[430] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[431] This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada’s position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.[432] In recent decades, Canada’s literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.[433] Since the 1980s, Canada’s ethnic and cultural diversity has been openly reflected in its literature.[434] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world’s best.[434]
Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,[435] including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes;[436] Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;[437] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.[438] L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children’s novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.[439]
Media
Canada’s media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse and very regionalized.[440][441] The Broadcasting Act declares «the system should serve to safeguard, enrich and strengthen the cultural, political, social and economic fabric of Canada».[442] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[443] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[444]
Canadian mass media, both print and digital and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a «handful of corporations».[445] The largest of these corporations is the country’s national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.[446] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.[447]
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[448] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[449] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[450]
Visual arts
Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its indigenous peoples.[451] Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in New France and early Canada, especially Quebec,[452] and in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[453] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[454]
The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage, by giving grants to art galleries,[455] as well as establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts (established in 1957), the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada’s cultural works.[456] Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[457]
Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as painter Tom Thomson and by the Group of Seven.[458] The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the group’s ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the group in 1926.[459] Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[460]
Music
Original publication of «O Canada», 1908
Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.[461] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations and television music video channels.[462] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.[463] The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[464] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[465] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada’s music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.[466] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame, established in 1976, honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[467]
Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, «The Bold Canadian», was written in 1812.[468] «The Maple Leaf Forever», written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and for many years served as an unofficial national anthem.[469] The official national anthem, «O Canada», was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980.[470] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.[471]
Sports
The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s,[472] culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, curling, basketball, baseball, association football and Canadian football.[473] Canada’s official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[474] Other sports such as volleyball, skiing, cycling, swimming, badminton, tennis, bowling and the study of martial arts are all widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[475] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada’s Sports Hall of Fame,[476] while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada’s top athlete by a panel of journalists.[477] There are numerous other sport «halls of fame» in Canada, such as the Hockey Hall of Fame.[476]
Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[478] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada.[479]
Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics,[480] though particularly the Winter Games as a «winter sports nation», and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,[481] the 1988 Winter Olympics,[482] the 2010 Winter Olympics[483][484] and the 2015 FIFA Women’s World Cup.[485] Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto, the former being one of the largest sporting events hosted by the country.[486] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.[487]
See also
- Index of Canada-related articles
- Outline of Canada
- Topics by provinces and territories
Notes
- ^ «Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter … adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe.»[169][170] «The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology»[171][172][173][174]
- ^ «The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Canadian Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 Reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel.»[245]
- ^ a b All citizens of Canada are classified as «Canadians» as defined by Canada’s nationality laws. «Canadian» as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. «Canadian» was included as an example on the English questionnaire and «Canadien» as an example on the French questionnaire.[355] «The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.»[356][357]
- ^ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as «persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour».[362]
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- ^ Lindsay, Peter; West, J. Thomas (September 30, 2016). «Canadian Sports History». The Canadian Encyclopedia.
- ^ «National Sports of Canada Act». Government of Canada. November 5, 2015. Archived from the original on November 24, 2015. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
- ^ «Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010)» (PDF). Government of Canada. 2013. p. 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
- ^ a b Danilov, Victor J. (1997). Hall of fame museums: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-313-30000-4.
- ^ Zawadzki, Edward (2001). The Ultimate Canadian Sports Trivia Book. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88882-237-6.
- ^ Butenko, Sergiy; Gil-Lafuente, Jaime; Pardalos, Panos M. (2010). Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 42–44. ISBN 978-3-642-13205-6.
- ^ Morrow, Don; Wamsley, Kevin B. (2016). Sport in Canada: A History. Oxford University Press. pp. xxi–intro. ISBN 978-0-19-902157-4.
- ^ Mallon, Bill; Heijmans, Jeroen (2011). Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement. Scarecrow Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8108-7522-7.
- ^ Howell, Paul Charles (2009). Montreal Olympics: An Insider’s View of Organizing a Self-financing Games. McGill-Queen’s University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7735-7656-8.
- ^ Horne, John; Whannel, Garry (2016). Understanding the Olympics. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-317-49519-2.
- ^ United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development (January 2006). The Economic Impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005. US GPO. ISBN 978-0-16-076789-0.
- ^ Fromm, Zuzana (2006). Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-197843-0.
- ^ Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women’s World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order. Canada Border Services Agency. 2015.
- ^ Peterson, David (July 10, 2014). «Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games». The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020.
- ^ «World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament». BBC Sport. June 13, 2018. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
Further reading
Overview
- Marsh, James H. (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.
Culture
- Cohen, Andrew (2007). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.
- Vance, Jonathan F. (2011). A History of Canadian Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544422-3.
- Forbes, H.D. (2019). Multiculturalism in Canada: Constructing a Model Multiculture with Multicultural Values. Recovering Political Philosophy. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-030-19835-0.
Demography and statistics
- Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967. Statistics Canada. 2008.
- Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen’s University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-7854-8.
- Canada Year Book, 2012 (Report). Statistics Canada. December 2012. ISSN 0068-8142. Catalogue no 11-402-XWE.
Economy
- Easterbrook, W.T.; Aitken, Hugh G. J. (2015). Canadian Economic History. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. ISBN 978-1-4426-5814-1.
- Economic Survey of Canada — 11 March 2021. OECD. 2022. – (Previous surveys)
- Jones-Imhotep, Edward; Adcock, Tina (2018). Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3726-2.
Foreign relations and military
- Conrad, John (2011). Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55488-981-5.
- Thomas Juneau; Philippe Lagassé; Srdjan Vucetic, eds. (2019). Canadian Defence Policy in Theory and Practice. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-03-026403-1. OCLC 1120056171.
Geography and climate
- Montello, Daniel R.; Applegarth, Michael T.; McKnight, Tom L. (2021). Regional Geography of the United States and Canada: Fifth Edition. Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-4786-4712-6.
- Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.
Government and law
- Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada (4th ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
- Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada. Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
History
- Careless, J. M. S. (2012). Canada: A Story of Challenge (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.
- Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994). Canadian History (2 volumes). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5016-8, ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3
Social welfare
- Finkel, Alvin (2006). Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-475-1.
- Thompson, Valerie D. (2015). Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-927406-31-1.
- Burke, Sara Z.; Milewski, Patrice (2011). Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9577-0.
External links
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 4 January 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
Overviews
- Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Canada at Curlie
- Canada profile from the OECD
- Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures
Government
- Official website of the Government of Canada
- Official website of the Governor General of Canada
- Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada
Travel
- Canada’s official website for travel and tourism
Coordinates: 60°N 110°W / 60°N 110°W
|
Canada |
|
|---|---|
|
Flag
Coat of arms |
|
| Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin) «From Sea to Sea» |
|
| Anthem: «O Canada»
Royal anthem: «God Save the King»[1] |
|
|
|
| Capital | Ottawa 45°24′N 75°40′W / 45.400°N 75.667°W |
| Largest city | Toronto |
| Official languages |
|
| Demonym(s) | Canadian |
| Government | Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy |
|
• Monarch |
Charles III |
|
• Governor General |
Mary Simon |
|
• Prime Minister |
Justin Trudeau |
| Legislature | Parliament |
|
• Upper house |
Senate |
|
• Lower house |
House of Commons |
| Independence
from the United Kingdom |
|
|
• Confederation |
July 1, 1867 |
|
• Statute of Westminster, 1931 |
December 11, 1931 |
|
• Patriation |
April 17, 1982 |
| Area | |
|
• Total area |
9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd) |
|
• Water (%) |
11.76 (2015)[2] |
|
• Total land area |
9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi) |
| Population | |
|
• 2022 estimate |
39,292,355[3] (37th) |
|
• 2021 census |
36,991,981[4] |
|
• Density |
4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (236th) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2022 estimate |
|
• Total |
$2.240 trillion[5] (15th) |
|
• Per capita |
$57,827[5] (23rd) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2022 estimate |
|
• Total |
$2.200 trillion[5] (8th) |
|
• Per capita |
$56,794[5] (11th) |
| Gini (2018) | 30.3[6] medium |
| HDI (2021) | 0.936[7] very high · 15th |
| Currency | Canadian dollar ($) (CAD) |
| Time zone | UTC−3.5 to −8 |
|
• Summer (DST) |
UTC−2.5 to −7 |
| Date format | yyyy—mm—dd (AD)[8] |
| Driving side | right |
| Calling code | +1 |
| Internet TLD | .ca |
Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world’s second-largest country by total area. Its southern and western border with the United States, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi), is the world’s longest binational land border. Canada’s capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.
Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.
Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country’s head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons, and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) at the federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, education, gender equality and environmental sustainability. It is one of the world’s most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada’s long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy and culture.
A highly developed country, Canada has the 24th highest nominal per capita income globally and the fifteenth-highest ranking on the Human Development Index. Its advanced economy is the eighth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, NATO, G7, Group of Ten, G20, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), World Trade Organization (WTO), Commonwealth of Nations, Arctic Council, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum, and Organization of American States.
Etymology
While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning «village» or «settlement».[9] In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[10] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[10] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[10]
From the 16th to the early 18th century, «Canada» referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[11] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively named the Canadas until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[12]
Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country’s title.[13] By the 1950s, the term Dominion of Canada was no longer used by the United Kingdom, which considered Canada a «Realm of the Commonwealth».[14] The government of Louis St. Laurent ended the practice of using Dominion in the statutes of Canada in 1951.[15][16][17]
The Canada Act 1982, which brought the constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[18] The term Dominion was used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[19]
History
Indigenous peoples
Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,[20] the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and subsequently developed their own identity.[20]
The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[21][22] The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[23] The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[24][25] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[26]
The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[27] and two million,[28] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada’s Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[29] As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.[30] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,[27][31] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations’ self-sufficiency.[32][33]
Although not without conflict, European Canadians’ early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[34] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade.[35] These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.[36][37] From the late 18th century, European Canadians forced Indigenous peoples to assimilate into a western Canadian society.[38] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.[39] A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[40] This includes recognition of past colonial injustices, settlement agreements and betterment of racial discrimination issues such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.[41][42]
European colonization
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War, which was part of the greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years’ War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink), New France (blue), and Spain (orange; California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated)
It is believed that the first European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson.[43][44] In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L’Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland.[45] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada’s Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[46] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words «Long Live the King of France» and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[47] The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast.[48] In general, early settlements during the Age of Discovery appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.[49][50]
In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John’s, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp.[51] In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence.[45] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).[52] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.[53] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[54]
The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south.[55][56] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years’ War.[57] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years’ War.[58]
British North America
The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[18] St. John’s Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[59] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec’s territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley.[60] More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[61] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies.[62] The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[18]
After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country.[63] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada’s first city.[64] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[65]
The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed.[66] Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[67] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[68] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[27]
The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.[69] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[18] The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855.[70] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[71] The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–BC border.[72]
Confederation and expansion
Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[73][74] Canada assumed control of Rupert’s Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis’ grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[75] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years,[76] while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[77] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[77] Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.[78]
To open the West and encourage European immigration, the Government of Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), passed the Dominion Lands Act to regulate settlement, and established the North-West Mounted Police to assert authority over the territory.[79][80] This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to «Indian reserves»,[81] clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements.[82] This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land.[83] The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands.[84] The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves.[85] During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.[86]
Early 20th century
French version of the poster roughly translates as «They serve France–Everyone can serve; Buy Victory Bonds».
The same poster in English, with subtle differences in text. «They serve France—How can I serve Canada? Buy Victory Bonds».
Because Britain still maintained control of Canada’s foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[87] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[88] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[89] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet’s proposal to augment the military’s dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[90] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[90] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[88] and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, affirmed Canada’s independence.[91]
The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[92] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[93] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada’s independence.[88]
The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.[94] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[88] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[95]
The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[88] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[96]
Contemporary era
The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor.[97] After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[98]
Canada’s post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[99] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[100] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[101] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[102]
Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada’s constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[103][104][105] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy.[106][107] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada’s third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[108]
At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[109] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970[110] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[111] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[112][113] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[114] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[111]
In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[115] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[116] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[117] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and Indigenous groups.[118] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a United States–led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[119] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001 but declined to join the United States–led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[120]
In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War,[121] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[122] The country celebrated its sesquicentennial in 2017, three years before the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began, on January 27, 2020, with widespread social and economic disruption.[123] In 2021, the remains of hundreds of Indigenous people were discovered near the former sites of Canadian Indian residential schools.[124] Administered by the Canadian Catholic Church and funded by the Canadian government from 1828 to 1997, these boarding schools attempted to assimilate Indigenous children into Euro-Canadian culture.[125]
Geography
A topographic map of Canada, in polar projection (for 90° W), showing elevations shaded from green to brown (higher)
By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia.[126] By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world’s largest area of fresh water lakes.[127] Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory.[128] Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world’s longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi).[129][130] In addition to sharing the world’s largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 km (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast on Hans Island[131] and a maritime boundary with France’s overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast.[132] Canada is also home to the world’s northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[133]
Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the interior plains, the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands and the Arctic Archipelago.[134] Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture.[128] The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada’s economic output.[128] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world’s fresh water.[135][136] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains and the Arctic Cordillera.[137] Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[138]
Climate
Köppen climate classification types of Canada
Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[139] In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[140]
Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada.[141] Canada’s annual average temperature over land has risen by 1.7 °C (3.1 °F), with changes ranging from 1.1 to 2.3 °C (2.0 to 4.1 °F) in various regions, since 1948.[128] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world’s fresh water.<ref»>» /> The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies.[142] In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth and agricultural productivity in Canada.[143]
Biodiversity
Canada is divided into fifteen terrestrial and five marine ecozones.[144] These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered.[145] Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries,[146] due to human activities, invasive species and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost.[147] About 65 percent of Canada’s resident species are considered «Secure».[148] Over half of Canada’s landscape is intact and relatively free of human development.[149] The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 km2 (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry.[150] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions,[151] with 42 percent of its land area covered by forests (approximately 8 percent of the world’s forested land).[152]
Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation’s landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas.[153] Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas.[153] Canada’s first National Park, Banff National Park established in 1885, spans 6,641 square kilometres (2,564 sq mi)[154] of mountainous terrain, with many glaciers and ice fields, dense coniferous forest, and alpine landscapes.[155] Canada’s oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park, established in 1893, covers an area of 7,653.45 square kilometres (2,955.01 sq mi). It is dominated by old-growth forest with over 2,400 lakes and 1,200 kilometres of streams and rivers.[156] Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world’s largest freshwater protected area, spanning roughly 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) of lakebed, its overlaying freshwater, and associated shoreline on 60 square kilometres (23 sq mi) of islands and mainland.[157] Canada’s largest national wildlife region is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area, which spans 11,570.65 square kilometres (4,467.45 sq mi)[158] and protects critical breeding and nesting habitat for over 40 percent of British Columbia’s seabirds.[159] Canada’s 18 UNESCO Biosphere Reserves cover a total area of 235,000 square kilometres (91,000 sq mi).[160]
Government and politics
Canada is described as a «full democracy»,[161] with a tradition of liberalism,[162] and an egalitarian,[163] moderate political ideology.[164] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada’s political culture.[165][166] Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of the Canadian government.[167][168]
At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising «brokerage politics»,[a] the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).[175] Historically, the Liberal Party position themselves at the centre of the Canadian political spectrum,[176][177] with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left.[178][179] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.[180][181][182] Five parties had representatives elected to the Parliament in the 2021 election—the Liberal Party, who currently form a minority government; the Conservative Party, who are the Official Opposition; the New Democratic Party; the Bloc Québécois; and the Green Party of Canada.[183]
Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[184][185][186][187] The reigning monarch is King Charles III, who is also monarch of 14 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada’s 10 provinces. The person who is the Canadian monarch is the same as the British monarch, although the two institutions are separate.[188] The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, with the advice of the prime minister to carry out most of their federal royal duties in Canada.[189][190]
While the monarchy is the source of authority in Canada, in practice its position is symbolic.[187][191][192] The use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister (at present Justin Trudeau),[193] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[191] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the individual who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[194] The Prime Minister’s Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[191] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[195]
Each of the 338 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections in Canada must be called by the governor general, triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House.[196][197] The Constitution Act, 1982 requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[198]
Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[192] Canada’s three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[199] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[200]
The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science and industry use the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.[201] The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.[202] The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.[203]
Law
The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[204] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[205] The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[206] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[207]
Canada’s judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017, by Richard Wagner, the chief justice of Canada.[208] The governor general appoints its nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[209]
Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates.[210] Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[211] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[212] In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[213]
Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada.[214] Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples.[215] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the Indigenous peoples and the reigning monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.[216] These treaties are agreements between the Canadian Crown-in-Council with the duty to consult and accommodate.[217] The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982.[215] These rights may include provision of services, such as health care through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.[218]
Foreign relations and military
Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[219] Canada’s foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions.[220][221] Canada’s peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.[222][223] The strategy of the Canadian government’s foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.[224]
Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization, the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[219] Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.[225] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.[226] Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.[227] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[228]
Canada and the United States share the world’s longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other’s largest trading partner.[229][230] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy.[231] For example, it maintains full relations with Cuba and declined to participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[232]
Canada maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada’s membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie.[233] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.[95]
Canada’s strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War (1899–1902), World War I (1914–1918) and World War II (1939–1945).[234] Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[235][236] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in cooperation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[237]
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future prime minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[238] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[239] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[88] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia affair.[240]
In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.[241] In August 2007, Canada’s territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[242]
The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel, increasing to 71,500 and 30,000 respectively under «Strong, Secure, Engaged»[243] with a sub-component of approximately 5,000 Canadian Rangers.[244][b] In 2021, Canada’s military expenditure totalled approximately $26.4 billion, or around 1.3 percent of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP).[246] Canada’s total military expenditure is expected to reach $32.7 billion by 2027.[247] Canada’s military currently has over 3000 personnel deployed overseas in multiple operations, such as Operation Snowgoose in Cyprus, Operation Unifier supporting Ukraine, Operation Caribbe in the Caribbean Sea, and Operation Impact, a coalition for the military intervention against ISIL.[248]
Provinces and territories
Political map of Canada showing its 10 provinces and 3 territories
Canada is a federation composed of ten federated states called provinces and three federal territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together).[249] Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare,[250] as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, a rarity among other federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas such as health and child care; the provinces can opt out of these cost-share programs but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[251]
The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada.[252] The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively.[253] As the division of powers between the federal government and the provinces is defined in the constitution, any changes require a constitutional amendment. The territories being creatures of the federal government, changes to their role and division of powers may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.[254]
Economy
The Toronto financial district is the second-largest financial centre in North America, the seventh-largest globally in employment and the heart of Canada’s finance industry.[255]
Canada has a highly developed mixed-market economy,[256][257] with the world’s eighth-largest economy as of 2022, and a nominal GDP of approximately US$2.221 trillion.[258] It is one of the least corrupt countries in the world[259] and is one of the world’s largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[260] Canada’s economy ranks above the US and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation’s Index of Economic Freedom[261] and experiences a relatively low level of income disparity.[262] The country’s average household disposable income per capita is «well above» the OECD average.[263] The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.[264]
In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion.[265] Canada’s exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States.[265] In 2018, Canada had a trade deficit in goods of $22 billion and a trade deficit in services of $25 billion.[265]
Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada’s manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[266] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country’s workforce.[267] Among developed countries, Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components.[268]
Canada
Countries and territories with free-trade agreements
Canada’s economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.[269] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada’s borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.[270] In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau’s Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[271] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney’s Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada to encourage foreign investment.[272] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement).[273] Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world’s highest per-capita membership in credit unions.[274]
Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[268][275] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, comprising the world’s third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[276] Canada is additionally one of the world’s largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[277] The country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium.[278] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[279]
Science and technology
In 2019, Canada spent approximately $40.3 billion on domestic research and development, of which over $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[280] As of 2020, the country has produced fifteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[281] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[282] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[283] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[284] Canada was ranked 15th in the Global Innovation Index in 2022.[285]
Some of the most notable scientific developments in Canada include the creation of the modern alkaline battery,[286] Insulin,[287] and the polio vaccine[288] and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus.[289] Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex,[290][291] the development of the electron microscope,[292][293] plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1.[294] Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis and early-onset Alzheimer’s disease, among numerous other diseases.[291][295]
The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.[296] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[297] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA’s Space Shuttle.[298] Since the 1960s, Canada’s aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[299] Canada has also produced one of the world’s most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket’s introduction in 1961.[300]
Demographics
The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure.[302] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[303] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[304] driven mainly by economic policy and also family reunification.[305][306] A record number of 405,000 immigrants were admitted to Canada in 2021.[307] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas in the country, such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[308] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees, accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements; it resettled more than 28,000 in 2018.[309][310]
Canada’s population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[302] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95 percent of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[311] About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States.[312] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[301][311]
The majority of Canadians (81.1 percent) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and those living with other relatives or unrelated persons reported at 6.8 percent.[313] Fifty-one percent of households are couples with or without children, 8.7 percent are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.[313]
Largest metropolitan areas in Canada 2021 Canadian census |
|||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. |
| 1 | Toronto | Ontario | 6,202,225 | 11 | London | Ontario | 543,551 |
| 2 | Montreal | Quebec | 4,291,732 | 12 | Halifax | Nova Scotia | 465,703 |
| 3 | Vancouver | British Columbia | 2,642,825 | 13 | St. Catharines–Niagara | Ontario | 433,604 |
| 4 | Ottawa–Gatineau | Ontario–Quebec | 1,488,307 | 14 | Windsor | Ontario | 422,630 |
| 5 | Calgary | Alberta | 1,481,806 | 15 | Oshawa | Ontario | 415,311 |
| 6 | Edmonton | Alberta | 1,418,118 | 16 | Victoria | British Columbia | 397,237 |
| 7 | Quebec City | Quebec | 839,311 | 17 | Saskatoon | Saskatchewan | 317,480 |
| 8 | Winnipeg | Manitoba | 834,678 | 18 | Regina | Saskatchewan | 249,217 |
| 9 | Hamilton | Ontario | 785,184 | 19 | Sherbrooke | Quebec | 227,398 |
| 10 | Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo | Ontario | 575,847 | 20 | Kelowna | British Columbia | 222,162 |
Health
Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare.[314][315] It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984[316] and is universal.[317] Universal access to publicly funded health services «is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country.»[318] Around 30 percent of Canadians’ healthcare is paid for through the private sector.[319] This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry.[319] Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance related to the aforementioned reasons; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs related to extended coverage for families receiving social assistance or vulnerable demographics, such as seniors, minors, and those with disabilities.[320][319]
In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age in Canada was 39.5 years;[321] it rose to 42.4 years by 2018[322] before falling slightly to 41.9 in 2021.[313] Life expectancy is 81.1 years.[323] A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they «had good or very good health».[324] Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use.[325] Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes (types 1 and 2 combined).[325] Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada.[326][327]
In 2021, the Canadian Institute for Health Information reported that healthcare spending reached $308 billion, or 12.7 percent of Canada’s GDP for that year.[328] Canada’s per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 4th among health-care systems in the OECD.[329] Canada has performed close to, or above the average on the majority of OECD health indicators since the early 2000s, ranking above the average on OECD indicators for wait-times and access to care, with average scores for quality of care and use of resources.[330][331] The Commonwealth Fund’s 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last.[332] Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage.[332] An increasing problem in Canada’s health system is a lack of healthcare professionals.[333][334][335]
Education
Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments.[336] Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province.[337][338] Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary education and post-secondary. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada.[339] Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded.[340] Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada.[341] The largest university is the University of Toronto with over 85,000 students.[342] Four universities are regularly ranked among the top 100 world-wide, namely University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, McGill University and McMaster University, with a total of 18 universities ranked in the top 500 worldwide.[343]
According to a 2019 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[344] the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[344] Canada spends about 5.3 percent of its GDP on education.[345] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[346] As of 2014, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[347]
The mandatory education age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[348] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[322] Just over 60,000 children are homeschooled in the country as of 2016. The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading,[349][350] ranking the overall knowledge and skills of Canadian 15-year-olds as the sixth-best in the world, although these scores have been declining in recent years. Canada is a well-performing OECD country in reading literacy, mathematics, and science with the average student scoring 523.7, compared with the OECD average of 493 in 2015.[351][352]
Ethnicity
A map showing the largest ethnic or cultural origins in Canada by census division in 2021:
|
Canadian/ English Irish Scottish French German Chinese Indian Ukrainian |
Métis Acadian Mennonite Inuit Cree Ojibway Dene Heiltsuk |
According to the 2021 Canadian census, over 450 «ethnic or cultural origins» were self-reported by Canadians.[353] The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5 percent), North American (22.9 percent), Asian (19.3 percent), North American Indigenous (6.1 percent), African (3.8 percent), Latin, Central and South American (2.5 percent), Caribbean (2.1 percent), Oceanian (0.3 percent), and other (6 percent).[353][354] Statistics Canada reports that 35.5 percent of the population reported multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.[353]
The country’s ten largest self-reported specific ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian[c] (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7 percent), Irish (12.1 percent), Scottish (12.1 percent), French (11.0 percent), German (8.1 percent), Chinese (4.7 percent), Italian (4.3 percent), Indian (3.7 percent), and Ukrainian (3.5 percent).[358]
Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being «White», representing 69.8 percent of the population.[359] The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million individuals, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021.[360] One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority,[361][d] the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1 percent), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7 percent) and Black (1.5 million; 4.3 percent).[359]
Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[363] In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada’s population, were members of visible minority groups.[364] The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0 percent) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent.[365] In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.[366]
Languages
Approximately 98 percent of Canadians can speak either or both English and French:[367]
English – 56.9%
English and French – 16.1%
French – 21.3%
Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4 persons per km2)
A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively.[368] As of the 2021 Census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their mother tongue. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), and German (272,865).[368] Canada’s federal government practices official bilingualism, which is applied by the commissioner of official languages in consonance with section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms and the federal Official Languages Act. English and French have equal status in federal courts, Parliament, and in all federal institutions. Citizens have the right, where there is sufficient demand, to receive federal government services in either English or French and official-language minorities are guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.[369]
The 1977 Charter of the French Language established French as the official language of Quebec.[370] Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba; Ontario has the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec.[371] New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has a French-speaking Acadian minority constituting 33 percent of the population.[372] There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and through central and western Prince Edward Island.[373]
Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures, and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official.[374] There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects.[375] Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories.[376] Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut, and is one of three official languages in the territory.[377]
Additionally, Canada is home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous.[378] American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools.[379] Due to its historical relation to the francophone culture, Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec, although there are sizeable Francophone communities in New Brunswick, Ontario and Manitoba.[380]
Religion
Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Although the Constitution of Canada refers to God and the monarch carries the title of «Defender of the Faith», Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[381] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[382]
The «Fundamental Freedoms» section of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms states:[383]
2. Everyone has the following fundamental freedoms:
- (a) freedom of conscience and religion;
- (b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and expression, including freedom of the press and other media of communication;
- (c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
- (d) freedom of association.
The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[384] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[385] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[386][387][388][389] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[390] but still believe in God.[391]
According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics having the most adherents. Christians, representing 53.3 percent of the population in 2021, are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent.[392] Other faiths include Islam (4.9 percent), Hinduism (2.3 percent), Sikhism (2.1 percent), Buddhism (1.0 percent), Judaism (0.9 percent), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2 percent).[393][394] Rates of religious adherence are steadily decreasing.[395][396] Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.[397][398]
Culture
Canada’s culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a «just society» are constitutionally protected.[399][400][401] Canada has placed emphasis on equality and inclusiveness for all its people.[402][403] The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada’s significant accomplishments,[404] and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity.[405][406] In Quebec, cultural identity is strong, and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture.[407] As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures.[408][409]
Canada’s approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support.[410] Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women’s rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBTQ rights, legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada’s political and cultural values.[411][412][413] Canadians also identify with the country’s foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the National park system and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[414][415]
Historically, Canada has been influenced by British, French, and Indigenous cultures and traditions. Through their language, art and music, Indigenous peoples continue to influence the Canadian identity.[416] During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean and Asian nationalities have added to the Canadian identity and its culture.[417] Canadian humour is an integral part of the Canadian identity and is reflected in its folklore, literature, music, art, and media. The primary characteristics of Canadian humour are irony, parody, and satire.[418]
Symbols
Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism.[420] Modern symbols emphasize the country’s geography, cold climate, lifestyles and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols.[421] The use of the maple leaf as a Canadian symbol dates to the early 18th century. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada’s current and previous flags, and on the Arms of Canada.[422] Canada’s official tartan, known as the «maple leaf tartan», has four colours that reflect the colours of the maple leaf as it changes through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling.[423] The Arms of Canada are closely modelled after the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.[424]
Other prominent symbols include the national motto «A mari usque ad mare» («From Sea to Sea»),[425] the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies,[422] and more recently the totem pole and Inuksuk.[426] Material items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, tuques, canoes, nanaimo bars, butter tarts and the Quebec dish of poutine are defined as uniquely Canadian.[426][427] Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the Arms of Canada on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel.[428] The penny, removed from circulation in 2013, featured the maple leaf.[429] An image of the previous monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, appears on $20 bank notes, and on the obverse of all current Canadian coins.[428]
Literature
Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively.[430] The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration.[431] This progressed into three major themes that can be found within historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada’s position within the world, all three of which tie into the garrison mentality.[432] In recent decades, Canada’s literature has been strongly influenced by immigrants from around the world.[433] Since the 1980s, Canada’s ethnic and cultural diversity has been openly reflected in its literature.[434] By the 1990s, Canadian literature was viewed as some of the world’s best.[434]
Numerous Canadian authors have accumulated international literary awards,[435] including novelist, poet, and literary critic Margaret Atwood, who received two Booker Prizes;[436] Nobel laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English;[437] and Booker Prize recipient Michael Ondaatje, who wrote the novel The English Patient, which was adapted as a film of the same name that won the Academy Award for Best Picture.[438] L. M. Montgomery produced a series of children’s novels beginning in 1908 with Anne of Green Gables.[439]
Media
Canada’s media is highly autonomous, uncensored, diverse and very regionalized.[440][441] The Broadcasting Act declares «the system should serve to safeguard, enrich and strengthen the cultural, political, social and economic fabric of Canada».[442] Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States.[443] As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).[444]
Canadian mass media, both print and digital and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a «handful of corporations».[445] The largest of these corporations is the country’s national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French.[446] In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.[447]
Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France.[448] In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing.[449] Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.[450]
Visual arts
Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by its indigenous peoples.[451] Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in New France and early Canada, especially Quebec,[452] and in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism.[453] The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada.[454]
The Canadian government has played a role in the development of Canadian culture through the department of Canadian Heritage, by giving grants to art galleries,[455] as well as establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts (established in 1957), the national public arts funder, helping artists, art galleries and periodicals, and thus contributing to the development of Canada’s cultural works.[456] Since the 1950s, works of Inuit art have been given as gifts to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.[457]
Canadian visual art has been dominated by figures such as painter Tom Thomson and by the Group of Seven.[458] The Group of Seven were painters with a nationalistic and idealistic focus, who first exhibited their distinctive works in May 1920. Though referred to as having seven members, five artists—Lawren Harris, A. Y. Jackson, Arthur Lismer, J. E. H. MacDonald, and Frederick Varley—were responsible for articulating the group’s ideas. They were joined briefly by Frank Johnston and by commercial artist Franklin Carmichael. A. J. Casson became part of the group in 1926.[459] Associated with the group was another prominent Canadian artist, Emily Carr, known for her landscapes and portrayals of the Indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast.[460]
Music
Original publication of «O Canada», 1908
Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes.[461] Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations and television music video channels.[462] Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music.[463] The Canadian music industry is the sixth-largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians and ensembles.[464] Music broadcasting in the country is regulated by the CRTC.[465] The Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences presents Canada’s music industry awards, the Juno Awards, which were first awarded in 1970.[466] The Canadian Music Hall of Fame, established in 1976, honours Canadian musicians for their lifetime achievements.[467]
Patriotic music in Canada dates back over 200 years as a distinct category from British patriotism, preceding Canadian Confederation by over 50 years. The earliest work of patriotic music in Canada, «The Bold Canadian», was written in 1812.[468] «The Maple Leaf Forever», written in 1866, was a popular patriotic song throughout English Canada and for many years served as an unofficial national anthem.[469] The official national anthem, «O Canada», was originally commissioned by the lieutenant governor of Quebec, Théodore Robitaille, for the 1880 St. Jean-Baptiste Day ceremony and was officially adopted in 1980.[470] Calixa Lavallée wrote the music, which was a setting of a patriotic poem composed by the poet and judge Sir Adolphe-Basile Routhier. The text was originally only in French before it was adapted into English in 1906.[471]
Sports
The roots of organized sports in Canada date back to the 1770s,[472] culminating in the development and popularization of the major professional games of ice hockey, lacrosse, curling, basketball, baseball, association football and Canadian football.[473] Canada’s official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse.[474] Other sports such as volleyball, skiing, cycling, swimming, badminton, tennis, bowling and the study of martial arts are all widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.[475] Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by Canada’s Sports Hall of Fame,[476] while the Lou Marsh Trophy is awarded annually to Canada’s top athlete by a panel of journalists.[477] There are numerous other sport «halls of fame» in Canada, such as the Hockey Hall of Fame.[476]
Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States.[478] Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, as well as three Major League Soccer teams and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the various curling tournaments sanctioned and organized by Curling Canada.[479]
Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and at the Summer Olympics,[480] though particularly the Winter Games as a «winter sports nation», and has hosted several high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics,[481] the 1988 Winter Olympics,[482] the 2010 Winter Olympics[483][484] and the 2015 FIFA Women’s World Cup.[485] Most recently, Canada hosted the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games in Toronto, the former being one of the largest sporting events hosted by the country.[486] The country is scheduled to co-host the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.[487]
See also
- Index of Canada-related articles
- Outline of Canada
- Topics by provinces and territories
Notes
- ^ «Brokerage politics: A Canadian term for successful big tent parties that embody a pluralistic catch-all approach to appeal to the median Canadian voter … adopting centrist policies and electoral coalitions to satisfy the short-term preferences of a majority of electors who are not located on the ideological fringe.»[169][170] «The traditional brokerage model of Canadian politics leaves little room for ideology»[171][172][173][174]
- ^ «The Royal Canadian Navy is composed of approximately 8,400 full-time sailors and 5,100 part-time sailors. The Canadian Army is composed of approximately 22,800 full-time soldiers, 18,700 Reservists, and 5,000 Canadian Rangers. The Royal Canadian Air Force is composed of approximately 13,000 Regular Force personnel and 2,400 Air Reserve personnel.»[245]
- ^ a b All citizens of Canada are classified as «Canadians» as defined by Canada’s nationality laws. «Canadian» as an ethnic group has since 1996 been added to census questionnaires for possible ancestral origin or descent. «Canadian» was included as an example on the English questionnaire and «Canadien» as an example on the French questionnaire.[355] «The majority of respondents to this selection are from the eastern part of the country that was first settled. Respondents generally are visibly European (Anglophones and Francophones) and no longer self-identify with their ethnic ancestral origins. This response is attributed to a multitude or generational distance from ancestral lineage.»[356][357]
- ^ Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority in Statistics Canada calculations. Visible minorities are defined by Statistics Canada as «persons, other than aboriginal peoples, who are non-Caucasian in race or non-white in colour».[362]
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- ^ Nischik, Reingard M. (2000). Margaret Atwood: Works and Impact. Camden House. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-57113-139-3.
- ^ Broadview Anthology of British Literature. Vol. B (Concise ed.). Broadview Press. 2006. p. 1459. GGKEY:1TFFGS4YFLT.
- ^ Giddings, Robert; Sheen, Erica (2000). From Page To Screen: Adaptations of the Classic Novel. Manchester University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-7190-5231-6.
- ^ Montgomery, L. M.; Nemo, August (2021). Essential Novelists – L. M. Montgomery: Anne of Green Gables. Tacet Books. ISBN 978-3-9855100-5-4. OCLC 1256575785.
- ^ Fry, H (2017). Disruption: Change and churning in Canada’s media landscape (PDF) (Report). Standing Committee on Canadian Heritage. Retrieved February 21, 2022.
- ^ «Freedom of expression and media freedom». GAC. February 17, 2020. Retrieved October 30, 2022.
- ^
- ^ Vipond, Mary (2011). The Mass Media in Canada (4th ed.). James Lorimer Company. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-55277-658-2.
- ^ Edwardson, Ryan (2008). Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood. University of Toronto Press. p. 59. ISBN 978-0-8020-9519-0.
- ^ Taras, David; Bakardjieva, Maria; Pannekoek, Frits, eds. (2007). How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity. University of Calgary Press. p. 87. ISBN 978-1-55238-224-0. OCLC 1006639327.
- ^ Taras, David; Bakardjieva, Maria; Pannekoek, Frits, eds. (2007). How Canadians Communicate II: Media, Globalization, and Identity. University of Calgary Press. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-55238-224-0. OCLC 1006639327.
- ^ Globerman, Steven (1983). Cultural Regulation in Canada. Institute for Research on Public Policy. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-920380-81-9.
- ^ Steven, Peter (2011). About Canada: Media. Fernwood. p. 111. ISBN 978-1-55266-447-6. OCLC 1069674192.
- ^ Beaty, Bart; Sullivan, Rebecca (2006). Canadian Television Today. University of Calgary Press. p. 37. ISBN 978-1-55238-222-6. OCLC 1024271072.
- ^ Krikorian, Jacqueline (2012). International Trade Law and Domestic Policy: Canada, the United States, and the WTO. UBC Press. p. 188. ISBN 978-0-7748-2306-7. OCLC 1058136992.
- ^ Mullen, Carol A. (2020). «Introduction». Canadian Indigenous Literature and Art: Decolonizing Education, Culture, and Society. Brill Sense. ISBN 978-90-04-41426-6. OCLC 1135561762.
- ^ Newlands, Anne (2000). Canadian Art: From Its Beginnings to 2000. Firefly Books. p. 182. ISBN 978-1-55209-450-1. OCLC 1008131883.
During the French regime in Quebec, the Roman Catholic Church was a major patron of artists, contracting them to design the interior decoration of churches and to produce paintings and sculpture
- ^ Cook, Ramsay (1974). «Landscape Painting and National Sentiment in Canada». Historical Reflections / Réflexions Historiques. 1 (2): 263–283. ISSN 0315-7997. JSTOR 41298655.
- ^ Kasoff, Mark J.; James, Patrick (June 17, 2013). Canadian Studies in the New Millennium (2 ed.). University of Toronto Press. pp. 198–204. ISBN 978-1-4426-6538-5. OCLC 1100658068.
- ^ as, for instance, in the following example of a show funded by the Government of Canada at the Peel Art Gallery Museum + Archives, Brampton:«Putting a spotlight on Canada’s Artistic Heritage». Government of Canada. January 14, 2020.
- ^ Beauregard, Devin; Paquette, Jonathan, eds. (July 28, 2021). Canadian Cultural Policy in Transition. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-00-041721-0.
- ^ Stern, Pamela R. (2010). Daily life of the Inuit. ABC-CLIO. p. 151. ISBN 978-0-313-36311-5.
- ^ McKay, Marylin J. (2011). Picturing the Land: Narrating Territories in Canadian Landscape Art, 1500–1950. McGill-Queen’s University Press. p. 229. ISBN 978-0-7735-3817-7.
- ^ Hill, Charles C (1995). The Group of Seven – Art for a Nation. National Gallery of Canada. pp. 15–21, 195. ISBN 978-0-7710-6716-7.
- ^ Newlands, Anne (1996). Emily Carr. Firefly Books. pp. 8–9. ISBN 978-1-55209-046-6.
- ^ Homan, Shane, ed. (January 13, 2022). The Bloomsbury Handbook of Popular Music Policy. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 179. ISBN 978-1-5013-4534-0. OCLC 1268122769.
- ^ The Canadian Communications Foundation. «The history of broadcasting in Canada». Archived from the original on March 9, 2012. Retrieved October 28, 2009.
- ^ Homan, Shane; Cloonan, Martin; Cattermole, Jen, eds. (October 2, 2017). Popular Music and Cultural Policy. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-65952-5.
- ^ Hull, Geoffrey P.; Hutchison, Thomas William; Strasser, Richard (2011). The Music Business and Recording Industry: Delivering Music in the 21st Century. Taylor & Francis. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-415-87560-8.
- ^ Acheson, Archibald Lloyd Keith; Maule, Christopher John (2009). Much Ado about Culture: North American Trade Disputes. University of Michigan Press. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-472-02241-0.
- ^ Edwardson, Ryan (2008). Canadian Content: Culture and the Quest for Nationhood. University of Toronto Press. p. 127. ISBN 978-0-8020-9759-0.
- ^ Hoffmann, Frank (2004). Encyclopedia of Recorded Sound. Routledge. p. 324. ISBN 978-1-135-94950-1.
- ^ Jortner, Adam (2011). The Gods of Prophetstown: The Battle of Tippecanoe and the Holy War for the American Frontier. Oxford University Press. p. 217. ISBN 978-0-19-976529-4.
- ^ «Maple Cottage, Leslieville, Toronto». Institute for Canadian Music. Archived from the original on March 31, 2009.
- ^ Kallmann, Helmut; Potvin, Gilles (February 7, 2018). «O Canada». Encyclopedia of Music in Canada. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 27, 2013.
- ^ «Hymne national du Canada». Canadian Heritage. June 23, 2008. Archived from the original on January 29, 2009. Retrieved June 26, 2008.
- ^ Roxborough, Henry (1975). The Beginning of Organized Sport in Canada. pp. 30–43.
- ^ Lindsay, Peter; West, J. Thomas (September 30, 2016). «Canadian Sports History». The Canadian Encyclopedia.
- ^ «National Sports of Canada Act». Government of Canada. November 5, 2015. Archived from the original on November 24, 2015. Retrieved November 23, 2015.
- ^ «Canadian sport participation – Most frequently played sports in Canada (2010)» (PDF). Government of Canada. 2013. p. 34. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 10, 2017. Retrieved January 27, 2017.
- ^ a b Danilov, Victor J. (1997). Hall of fame museums: a reference guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-313-30000-4.
- ^ Zawadzki, Edward (2001). The Ultimate Canadian Sports Trivia Book. Dundurn Press Ltd. p. 190. ISBN 978-0-88882-237-6.
- ^ Butenko, Sergiy; Gil-Lafuente, Jaime; Pardalos, Panos M. (2010). Optimal Strategies in Sports Economics and Management. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 42–44. ISBN 978-3-642-13205-6.
- ^ Morrow, Don; Wamsley, Kevin B. (2016). Sport in Canada: A History. Oxford University Press. pp. xxi–intro. ISBN 978-0-19-902157-4.
- ^ Mallon, Bill; Heijmans, Jeroen (2011). Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement. Scarecrow Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-8108-7522-7.
- ^ Howell, Paul Charles (2009). Montreal Olympics: An Insider’s View of Organizing a Self-financing Games. McGill-Queen’s University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-7735-7656-8.
- ^ Horne, John; Whannel, Garry (2016). Understanding the Olympics. Routledge. p. 157. ISBN 978-1-317-49519-2.
- ^ United States Senate Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism and Economic Development (January 2006). The Economic Impact of the 2010 Vancouver, Canada, Winter Olympics on Oregon and the Pacific Northwest: hearing before the Subcommittee on Trade, Tourism, and Economic Development of the Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation, United States Senate, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session, August 5, 2005. US GPO. ISBN 978-0-16-076789-0.
- ^ Fromm, Zuzana (2006). Economic Issues of Vancouver-Whistler 2010 Olympics. Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-197843-0.
- ^ Temporary Importations Using the FIFA Women’s World Cup Canada 2015 Remission Order. Canada Border Services Agency. 2015.
- ^ Peterson, David (July 10, 2014). «Why Toronto should get excited about the Pan Am Games». The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020.
- ^ «World Cup 2026: Canada, US & Mexico joint bid wins right to host tournament». BBC Sport. June 13, 2018. Archived from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved June 13, 2018.
Further reading
Overview
- Marsh, James H. (1999). The Canadian Encyclopedia. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2099-5.
Culture
- Cohen, Andrew (2007). The Unfinished Canadian: The People We Are. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 978-0-7710-2181-7.
- Vance, Jonathan F. (2011). A History of Canadian Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-544422-3.
- Forbes, H.D. (2019). Multiculturalism in Canada: Constructing a Model Multiculture with Multicultural Values. Recovering Political Philosophy. Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-030-19835-0.
Demography and statistics
- Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967. Statistics Canada. 2008.
- Carment, David; Bercuson, David (2008). The World in Canada: Diaspora, Demography, and Domestic Politics. McGill-Queen’s University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-7854-8.
- Canada Year Book, 2012 (Report). Statistics Canada. December 2012. ISSN 0068-8142. Catalogue no 11-402-XWE.
Economy
- Easterbrook, W.T.; Aitken, Hugh G. J. (2015). Canadian Economic History. University of Toronto Press, Scholarly Publishing Division. ISBN 978-1-4426-5814-1.
- Economic Survey of Canada — 11 March 2021. OECD. 2022. – (Previous surveys)
- Jones-Imhotep, Edward; Adcock, Tina (2018). Made Modern: Science and Technology in Canadian History. UBC Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-3726-2.
Foreign relations and military
- Conrad, John (2011). Scarce Heard Amid the Guns: An Inside Look at Canadian Peacekeeping. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-1-55488-981-5.
- Thomas Juneau; Philippe Lagassé; Srdjan Vucetic, eds. (2019). Canadian Defence Policy in Theory and Practice. Springer Nature. ISBN 978-3-03-026403-1. OCLC 1120056171.
Geography and climate
- Montello, Daniel R.; Applegarth, Michael T.; McKnight, Tom L. (2021). Regional Geography of the United States and Canada: Fifth Edition. Waveland Press. ISBN 978-1-4786-4712-6.
- Stanford, Quentin H, ed. (2008). Canadian Oxford World Atlas (6th ed.). Oxford University Press (Canada). ISBN 978-0-19-542928-2.
Government and law
- Malcolmson, Patrick; Myers, Richard (2009). The Canadian Regime: An Introduction to Parliamentary Government in Canada (4th ed.). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-1-4426-0047-8.
- Morton, Frederick Lee (2002). Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada. Frederick Lee. ISBN 978-1-55238-046-8.
History
- Careless, J. M. S. (2012). Canada: A Story of Challenge (Revised ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-67581-0.
- Francis, RD; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Nelson Education. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Doug (1994). Canadian History (2 volumes). University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-5016-8, ISBN 978-0-8020-2801-3
Social welfare
- Finkel, Alvin (2006). Social Policy and Practice in Canada: A History. Wilfrid Laurier University Press. ISBN 978-0-88920-475-1.
- Thompson, Valerie D. (2015). Health and Health Care Delivery in Canada. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-1-927406-31-1.
- Burke, Sara Z.; Milewski, Patrice (2011). Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-9577-0.
External links
This audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 4 January 2008, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
Overviews
- Canada from UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Canada at Curlie
- Canada profile from the OECD
- Key Development Forecasts for Canada from International Futures
Government
- Official website of the Government of Canada
- Official website of the Governor General of Canada
- Official website of the Prime Ministers of Canada
Travel
- Canada’s official website for travel and tourism
Морфемный разбор слова:
Однокоренные слова к слову:
существительное
прилагательное
Мои примеры
Словосочетания
Примеры
Her roots are in Canada. 
Bank of Canada
Canada adjoins the U.S.
Канада граничит с США.
Canada is rich in timber
Канада богата (строевым) лесом
Canada is a neighbor of the U.S.
Канада является соседом США.
They sought refuge in Canada.
Они искали убежища в Канаде.
Hockey is a religion in Canada.
В Канаде хоккей — это святое.
Canada’s vast mineral resources
огромные минеральные ресурсы Канады
The suspect absconded to Canada.
Подозреваемый бежал в Канаду.
I met him on vacation in Canada.
Я познакомилась с ним в отпуске в Канаде.
We beat Canada on their home turf.
Мы обыграли Канаду на их поле. (о спорте)
She wired the money home to Canada.
Она отправила эти деньги домой, в Канаду.
We’re going to Canada in the summer.
Летом мы поедем в Канаду.
The maple leaf is an emblem of Canada.
Кленовый лист является символом Канады.
The population is twice that of Canada.
Население — в два раза больше, чем в Канаде.
The youngest son was sent out to Canada.
Младшего сына отправили в Канаду.
Canada is a member of the United Nations.
Канада является членом Организации Объединенных Наций.
The bird is found as far north as Canada.
На севере эта птица встречается даже в Канаде.
We have relations in Canada and Scotland.
У нас есть связи в Канаде и Шотландии.
He is rumoured to have escaped to Canada.
Говорят, что он сбежал в Канаду.
The national emblem of Canada is a maple leaf.
Государственный герб Канады — кленовый лист.
On his return from Canada, he joined the army.
По возвращении из Канады, он вступил в армию.
In Canada, the situation is altogether different.
В Канаде всё совсем по-другому.
In parts of Canada, French is the first language.
В некоторых частях Канады, французский является основным языком общения.
Canada decided to confederate and become a nation.
Канада решила образовать федерацию и стать самостоятельным государством.
There are fears that Quebec may secede from Canada.
Есть некоторые опасения, что провинция Квебек может отделиться от Канады.
Canada, the UK and Japan leant towards the US view.
Канада, Великобритания и Япония склонились к точке зрения США.
A young man from Canada had attached himself to Sam.
К Сэму привязался один молодой человек из Канады.
It’s time to re-federate Canada, starting from scratch.
Пришло время полностью пересмотреть федеративное устройство Канады.
British medical qualifications are recognized in Canada.
Британские медицинские дипломы официально признаются в Канаде.
Примеры, ожидающие перевода
Canada is right next door to the U.S.
He decided to westernize his name after moving from Japan to Canada.
. cached the fugitive slaves in their cellar until they could make their way to Canada.
Источник
канада
1 Канада
2 канада
3 Канада
4 Канада
5 Канада
6 канада
7 Канада
8 Канада
9 Канада
10 Канада
11 Канада
12 Канада
13 Канада
14 Канада
15 Канада
См. также в других словарях:
Канада — Канада. Замок Лорье в Оттаве. КАНАДА, государство в Северной Америке, омывается Атлантическим океаном (на востоке), Тихим океаном (на западе) и Северным Ледовитым океаном (на севере) и их морями. Площадь 9976 тыс. км2. Население 28,3 млн. человек … Иллюстрированный энциклопедический словарь
Канада — I • Канада (после III в. до н. э.), легендарный древнеиндийский мыслитель, основатель философской системы вайшешика, автор «Вайшешика сутры». II • Канада (Canada), государство в Северной Америке. 9971 тыс. км2. Население 29,6 млн. человек (1995) … Энциклопедический словарь
Канада — (Canada) гос во в Сев. Америке, занимающее сев. часть материка и примыкающие к ней о ва, в т.ч. Канадский Арктич. архипелаг, Ньюфаундленд, Ванкувер. Омывается водами Сев. Ледовитого, Тихого и Атлантич. ок. Входит в состав Содружества… … Геологическая энциклопедия
канада — страна кленового листа Словарь русских синонимов. Канада Страна кленового листа Словарь синонимов русского языка. Практический справочник. М.: Русский язык. З. Е. Александрова. 2011 … Словарь синонимов
Канада — (Canada), федеративное гос во в Сев. Америке, в к рое входят 10 пров. (Альберта, Брит. Колумбия, Манитоба, Нью Брансуик, Ньюфаундленд, Новая Шотландия, Онтарио, Остров Принца Эдуарда, Квебек, Саскачеван), и 2 терр. Юкон и Северо Зап. Территории.… … Всемирная история
КАНАДА — (после 3 в. до н. э.) легендарный древнеиндийский мыслитель, основатель философской системы вайшешика, автор Вайшешика сутры … Большой Энциклопедический словарь
Канада — государство в Северной Америке. Площадь 997 тыс. км2. Население 28,3 млн. чел. Столица Оттава … Исторический словарь
Канада — (Canada), государство в Северной Америке. На территории Канады ко времени европейской колонизации коренные её жители индейцы жили в землянках (охотники Скалистых гор), шалашах вигвамах (лесные охотники), крытых шкурами палатках типи… … Художественная энциклопедия
КАНАДА — (видимо, после 300 до н. э.), один из создателей др. инд. филос. системы вайтешика и первый её систематизатор. Считается, что настоящее имя К. Улука, откуда обозначение его системы аулукья. Осн. труд «Вайшегаика сутра»; особое внимание… … Философская энциклопедия
КАНАДА — мера жидкостей в Испании. Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка. Чудинов А.Н., 1910 … Словарь иностранных слов русского языка
Источник
Канада на английском языке — пример рассказа с русским переводом
Изучение английского языка – это не только развитие для себя крайне полезного навыка, но и расширение общего кругозора. На занятиях ученики узнают много новой и полезной информации, связанной с обществом, культурой, историей и даже географией. Вот, например, сегодня темой нашего занятия станет «Канада на английском языке». С помощью обучающей статьи будем разбираться, что собой представляет Канада и с помощью каких слов можно описать эту красивую страну по-английски. Также, конечно, не оставим наших читателей без готового рассказа о Канаде на английском языке с переводом на русский. Присоединяйтесь к уроку, будет интересно!
Каким может быть топик Канада на английском
Для начала немного поговорим о том, каким может быть формат данной работы. В своих материалах мы не раз отмечали, что топики хороши разносторонним влиянием на учащегося. Казалось бы, один простой обучающий текст – а сколько пользы! Помимо очевидных преимуществ, вроде улучшения чтения и переводческого мастерства, топики позволяют развивать письменные навыки и умение мыслить на иностранном. С этими качествами, конечно, связан не столько сам текст, сколько творческие задания к нему. Поэтому в зависимости от цели работы, формат топика может быть варьироваться. Выделим лишь несколько примеров тем, которые может раскрыть краткий рассказ о Канаде на английском языке:
Это наиболее популярные варианты содержания текстов. Но, например, для практики разговорного языка стандартные темы может заменить необычная история про Канаду на английском, описание курьезного случая, исторического казуса и т.п.
В общем, конкретная тема зависит от вашей цели. Хотите научиться освещать на деловом или литературном английском общие темы? Берите за образец стандартный Canada topic и постарайтесь сделать собственный текст с краткими фактами о стране (географическими, политическими, культурными и т.п.). Если же вас больше интересует разговорный английский и неформальное общение, найдите какой-нибудь увлекательный факт о Канаде и попробуйте пересказать его своими словами.
Для нас же, поскольку принято прежде всего изучать литературный язык, выбор очевиден. Поэтому дальше будем разбирать, как характеризуется Канада по-английски с разных точек зрения: географической, политической, культурной и т.д.
Полезная английская лексика для описания страны
Какой бы ни была выбранная вами тема, без слов любой текст про Канаду на английском не обойдется. Поэтому перед тем, как изучить английский topic Canada, мы всем рекомендуем ознакомиться с тематической лексикой. Представленная ниже таблица поможет легко разобраться с обучающим текстом, и при необходимости написать собственный рассказ про Канаду на английском языке без помощи онлайн переводчика. Поэтому крайне рекомендуем данную подборку слов хотя бы к ознакомлению, а лучше всего, конечно, к заучиванию наизусть.
| Английская лексика для характеристики страны | ||
| Слово | Транскрипция | Перевод |
| Canada | [ˈkænədə] | Канада |
| country | [ˈkʌntri] | страна |
| independent | [ˌɪndɪˈpɛndənt] | независимый |
| state | [steɪt] | государство |
| democracy | [dɪˈmɒkrəsi] | демократия |
| monarchy | [ˈmɒnəki] | монархия |
| federation | [ˌfɛdəˈreɪʃən] | федерация |
| government | [ˈgʌvnmənt] | правительство |
| geographical position | [ʤɪəˈgræfɪkəl pəˈzɪʃən] | географическое положение |
| coastline | [ˈkəʊstlaɪn] | береговая линия |
| population | [ˌpɒpjʊˈleɪʃən] | население |
| demographics | [ˌdiːməˈgræfɪks] | демография |
| attractions | [əˈtrækʃ(ə)nz] | достопримечательности |
| history | [ˈhɪstəri] | история |
| nature | [ˈneɪʧə] | природа |
| climate | [ˈklaɪmɪt] | климат |
| natural resources | [ˈnæʧrəl rɪˈsɔːsɪz] | природные ресурсы |
| economy | [i(ː)ˈkɒnəmi] | экономика |
| capital | [ˈkæpɪtl] | столица |
| city | [ˈsɪti] | город |
| people | [ˈpiːpl] | люди |
| official language | [əˈfɪʃəl ˈlæŋgwɪʤ] | официальный язык |
| economic center | [ˌiːkəˈnɒmɪk ˈsɛntə] | экономический центр |
| multinational | [ˌmʌltɪˈnæʃənl] | многонациональный |
| to be situated | [tuː biː ˈsɪtjʊeɪtɪd] | располагаться |
| to be washed by | [tuː biː wɒʃt] [baɪ] | омываться чем-либо |
| to border | [tuː ˈbɔːdə] | граничить |
| to include | [tuː ɪnˈkluːd] | включать |
| territory | [ˈtɛrɪtəri] | территория |
| majority | [məˈʤɒrɪti] | большинство |
| indigenous | [ɪnˈdɪʤɪnəs] | местный, коренной, аборигенный |
| forest | [ˈfɒrɪst] | лес |
| member of the United Nations | [ˈmɛmbər ɒv ðə jʊˈnaɪtɪd ˈneɪʃənz] | член Организации Объединенных Наций |
Теперь топик «Канада» на английском языке будет читателям более понятен и легок в изучении. Собственно, вот и наступило время для работы с самим текстом. Приступаем!
Возможно вам будут интересны другие топики и сочинения про страны и достопримечательности:
Текст о Канаде на английском языке с русским переводом
Итак, предлагаем вниманию читателей топик Канада на английском языке с переводом на русском языке по каждому абзацу.
Canada is one of the largest countries in the world. This country is situated in the north part of Northern America and it is the largest country on this continent. Canada is a land of vast distances and rich natural beauty. Its area is almost 10 million km2 and in size this country is the second in the world after Russia. The country has the longest coastline, which is washed by the three oceans: Atlantic, the Pacific and the Arctic. Canada is often called the «Land of the Maple Leaf», because the maple leaf is the national emblem of the country.
Canada is very rich in forest. It also has many lakes, mountains, prairies and sparsely populated arctic areas. The territory of the Canada includes lots of islands, most known of which is the Canadian Arctic Islands. The state of Canada shares land and sea borders with the USA, Denmark and France. Canada has the population of about 34 million and the official languages of the country are English and French. The last is spoken by 23 % of inhabitants. Nearly 60 percent of the population speak English and the rest speaks other languages (German, Italian, Chinese, Polish, Ukrainian and etc.).
Очень богата Канада лесами. Здесь также есть много озер, гор, прерий и малонаселенных арктических районов. Территория Канады включает в себя множество островков, более известных как Канадские Арктические острова. Государство Канада разделяет свои морские и сухопутные границы с Соединенными Штатами Америки, Данией и Францией. Население Канады насчитывает почти 34 миллиона человек, а официальными языками в стране признаны английский и французский. На последнем изъясняются порядка 23% местных жителей. Почти 60 процентов населения говорят на английском, а остальная часть общается на других языках (немецком, итальянском, китайском, польском, украинском и т.д.).
Canada is a sovereign state. Its government type is confederation with parliamentary democracy. The state includes ten provinces and three territories. Officially the Queen of Canada is Elizabeth II, but she remains the nominal head of state. The Parliament of Canada passes the laws of the country. It is based on the British Westminster system, with a lower House of Commons, and an upper Senate. The head of government is the Prime Minister. Besides, each province has its own government.
Канада – независимое государство. Его тип управления – конфедерация, совмещенная с парламентской демократией. Государство включает в себя 10 провинций и три территории. Официально королевой Канады является Елизавета Вторая, но она остается номинальной главой государства. Издает законы страны канадский Парламент. Он основан на британской Вест-Министерской системе, которая предполагает наличие нижней палаты общин и верхнего Сената. Главой правительства является премьер-министр. Кроме того, в каждой провинции есть собственное правительство.
The capital of Canada is Ottawa. It is situated on the bank of the Ottawa River and is known as the city of bridges. Ottawa has many attractions, national government monuments and beautiful parks. Another important city in Canada is Toronto. It is the largest city of the country. Toronto is a huge megalopolis with lots of skyscrapers and office buildings. This city is called the main cultural and economic center of English-speaking part of the country. Montreal and Vancouver should also be noted among the famous Canadian cities. Montreal is the second-largest French-speaking city in the world after Paris. And Vancouver was the host city for the 2010 Winter Olympics.
Источник
столица канады
1 Нефтяная столица Канады
2 (г.) Оттава
3 Оттава
4 Оттава
5 Акт о бизнес-корпорациях Канады
6 Банк Канады
7 Посольство Канады
фр. Ambassade du Canada
Канадское посольство
Contact:
Visa Section
ul. Piekna 2/8
00-482 Warsaw
Tel.: (+48 22) 584 3131
Fax: (+48 22) 584 3194
E-Mail: wsaw-im@international.gc.ca
===
Persons residing in Belarus may submit their applications in person or through the Ministry of Foreign Affairs office in Minsk located at the following address:
Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Information Centre
ul. Karla Marksa 16
Minsk, Belarus
Tel: (+375 17) 227 4522
===
The Visa Section of the Embassy is open to the public on Monday, Tuesday, Thursday and Friday, 08:15 to 11:00 for temporary resident visa applicants and 13:00 to 15:00 for permanent resident visa applicants.
The Visa Section is closed to the public on Wednesdays.
We are also closed to the public on certain Canadian and Polish public holidays.
8 столица
9 столица
10 столица
11 столица
12 Агентство Канады по проблемам международного развития
Агентство Канады по проблемам международного развития
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]
Тематики
13 Агентство Канады по проблемам развития международных отношений
Тематики
14 Ассоциация клубов нефтяников США и Канады
Тематики
15 Ассоциация по стандартам Канады
Ассоциация по стандартам Канады
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]
Тематики
16 Ассоциация физиков Канады
Ассоциация физиков Канады
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]
Тематики
17 акционерное общество по атомной энергии Канады
акционерное общество по атомной энергии Канады
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]
Тематики
18 единый стандарт для США, Великобритании и Канады
Тематики
19 Институт Канады по проблемам радиационной безопасности
Институт Канады по проблемам радиационной безопасности
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]
Тематики
20 Институт научно-технической информации Канады
Институт научно-технической информации Канады
—
[А.С.Гольдберг. Англо-русский энергетический словарь. 2006 г.]
Тематики
См. также в других словарях:
Столица Канады — … Википедия
Оттава (столица Канады) — Оттава (Ottawa), столица Канады. Политический, культурный и один из важных экономических центров страны. Собственно город расположен на р. Оттава и канале Ридо, на территории провинции Онтарио (на высоте 72 м). Климат умеренный континентальный.… … Большая советская энциклопедия
Правительство Канады — Координаты: 56°00′00″ с. ш. 109°00′00″ з. д. / 56° с. ш. 109° з. д. … Википедия
Население Канады — Основная статья: Канадцы Динамика населения Канады с 1961 по 2010 (данные ФАО, 2008). Население в миллионах человек. Население Канады: 33 091 228 человек (оценка, окт … Википедия
Города Канады — Эта статья или раздел нуждается в переработке. Пожалуйста, улучшите статью в соответствии с правилами написания статей … Википедия
Онтарио (провинция Канады) — Онтарио Девиз: Ut Incepit Fidelis Sic Permanet «Верный с самого начала верный всегда» … Википедия
Административное деление Канады — История формирования текущего административного деления Канады Канада состоит из десяти провинций и трёх территорий. Провинции это государства, существующие на основании канадской конституции и обладающие высшей властью в рамках своей… … Википедия
Юкон (территория Канады) — У этого термина существуют и другие значения, см. Юкон. Юкон … Википедия
Юкон (территория на С.-З. Канады) — Юкон Другие провинции Столица … Википедия
Экономика Канады — Экономические показатели Валюта ка … Википедия
Генерал-губернатор Канады — Governor General of Canada Gouverneur général du Canada … Википедия
Источник
Теперь вы знаете какие однокоренные слова подходят к слову Как правильно пишется канада на английском, а так же какой у него корень, приставка, суффикс и окончание. Вы можете дополнить список однокоренных слов к слову «Как правильно пишется канада на английском», предложив свой вариант в комментариях ниже, а также выразить свое несогласие проведенным с морфемным разбором.
Her roots are in Canada.
Её предки — выходцы из Канады.
Bank of Canada
Банк Канады
Canada adjoins the U.S.
Канада граничит с США.
Canada is rich in timber
Канада богата (строевым) лесом
Canada is a neighbor of the U.S.
Канада является соседом США.
They sought refuge in Canada.
Они искали убежища в Канаде.
Canada’s vast mineral resources
огромные минеральные ресурсы Канады
ещё 23 примера свернуть
Canada is right next door to the U.S. 
He decided to westernize his name after moving from Japan to Canada.
…cached the fugitive slaves in their cellar until they could make their way to Canada…
Для того чтобы добавить вариант перевода, кликните по иконке ☰, напротив примера.
Привет! Помогиете с мини-сочинением по английскому. Укажите на ошибки. Как можно лучше написать, что добавить, что убрать. In free time I usually go to the river Kuban. This place isn’t far from my home. There is quiet, calm and there are no people.
Ответы (1)
Помогите с английским Используя следующие слова и словосочетания, расскажите, Б) как вы отдыхали зимой: to like, in the winter, fine weather, to go for one’s holiday, at a holiday-centre, in the country, near Moscow, to wake up early, to wash, to
Ответы (1)
Укажите, какой частью речи являются слова в скобках в предложении (существительное, прилагательное, глагол) 1. (English) is as difficult as German. 2. My composition is not as (long) as yourse. 3. It isn’t as (warm) todays as it was yesterday. 4.
Ответы (1)
Найдите правильный ответ на вопрос ✅ «Как по англ пишется канада? …» по предмету 📘 Английский язык, а если вы сомневаетесь в правильности ответов или ответ отсутствует, то попробуйте воспользоваться умным поиском на сайте и найти ответы на похожие вопросы.
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Как по англ пишется канада ?
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Canada — Канада …….
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Canada…………..
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Анжелика Клокова
Ученик
(141),
закрыт
8 лет назад
ЧАВ
Высший разум
(171114)
8 лет назад
Вам по-канадски? Canada. Пишется одинаково и по-английски, и по-французски.
Остальные ответы
женя слидзевский
Знаток
(381)
8 лет назад
Канада, вот так
Anniyan
Просветленный
(43747)
8 лет назад
«КанадА»(Игорь Христенко) :))
Торч Героиновый
Ученик
(99)
8 лет назад
Вы все правильно написали. Только было бы неплохо писать названия стран с заглавной буквы:)
Ольга Ковалева
Ученик
(137)
3 года назад
канад
Bank of Canada
Банк Канады
Her roots are in Canada.
Её предки — выходцы из Канады.
Canada adjoins the U.S.
Канада граничит с США.
Canada is rich in timber
Канада богата (строевым) лесом
Canada is a neighbor of the U.S.
Канада является соседом США.
Canada’s vast mineral resources
огромные минеральные ресурсы Канады
They sought refuge in Canada.
Они искали убежища в Канаде.
ещё 23 примера свернуть
He decided to westernize his name after moving from Japan to Canada.
…cached the fugitive slaves in their cellar until they could make their way to Canada…
She has dual nationality, of Canada and Britain (=she is a citizen of Canada and Britain).
Для того чтобы добавить вариант перевода, кликните по иконке ☰, напротив примера.
(Canada, Le Canada)
Общие сведения
Официальное название — Канада. Расположена в северной части Северной Америки (с прилегающими островами, в т. ч. Канадским Арктическим архипелагом). Площадь 9 976 140 км2. По размеру территории — 2-е место в мире после РФ. Численность населения 32 млн чел. (2003). Понятие «государственный язык» в Канаде не принято. По Конституции «официальными» языками страны являются равноценные в употреблении федеральными государственными службами К. английский и французский языки. Столица — г. Оттава (1,1 млн чел.). Государственный праздник — День К. 1 июля. Денежная единица — канадский доллар.
Член ООН (с 1945) и её специализированных организаций, НАТО (с 1949), ОЭСР (с 1961), ОБСЕ (с 1975), «большой семёрки», ОАГ (с 1990), Североамериканского соглашения о свободной торговле (НАФТА, с 1994), Содружества, «Франкофонии», ВТО, МБРР, МВФ и др.
География
Расположена между 52°37′ и 141°00′ западной долготы и 41°41′ и 83°06′ северной широты. Протяжённость с востока на запад — 5514 км; с юга на север — 4634 км. Омывается на востоке Атлантическим, на севере — Северным Ледовитым и на западе — Тихим океанами. Общая протяжённость сильно изрезанной береговой линии (включая побережья островов) — 243 791 км (самая большая в мире). Граница территориальных вод — 3 морские мили (5,5 км). Граница морской экономической (рыболовной) зоны — 200 морских миль (371 км).
Граничит с США на юге, а также на северо-западе (со штатом Аляска). Протяжённость сухопутных границ — 8893 км.
К. делится на 7 физико-географических районов.
1. Арктические горы. Большую часть острова Элсмир и северо-восточного побережья острова Баффинова Земля занимает череда высоких гор: арктическая пустыня.
2. Лаврентийский (Канадский) щит. Территория этого равнинного района, занимающего 1/2 площади страны, сложена древними кристаллическими породами. Формы рельефа — наследие ледникового периода. Район чрезвычайно богат минеральными ресурсами (руды чёрных, цветных, благородных, радиоактивных и редкоземельных металлов, а также открытые в кон. 20 в. месторождения алмазов, разведка которых продолжается). Тундра, лесотундра, на юге хвойные леса.
3. Аппалачские горы. Приатлантические провинции и остров Ньюфаундленд представляют самый северный край Аппалачской горной системы. Высочайшая гора — Д’Ибервиль (Кобвик) (1652 м) в провинции Квебек. Лесотундра, на юге хвойные и смешанные леса.
4. Внутренние равнины. Этот граничащий с Канадским щитом район продолжается из США через лесостепи и степи южной части Степных провинций (ныне почти полностью распаханные) и распространяется на северо-запад до тундр арктического побережья. Здесь и на северном морском шельфе найдены крупные месторождения нефти и природного газа.
5. Скалистые горы резко поднимаются вдоль западного края Внутренних равнин. Их вершины часто превышают 3 тыс. м (высочайшая — гора Колумбия, 3747 м).
6. Межгорные районы Запада. Этот район, исключительно сложный в геологическом отношении, представляет собой череду плато, невысоких хребтов и долин к западу от Скалистых гор; отделяет их от горных хребтов, которые протягиваются вдоль Тихоокеанского побережья.
7. Тихоокеанская горная система. Западный край континента представляет собой горную страну, простирающуюся от Аляски через территорию Юкон и Британскую Колумбию до Калифорнии. Здесь высочайшая точка К. — гора Логан (6050 м) в горах Святого Ильи близ границы с Аляской. Ресурсы Тихоокеанского, как и Атлантического, района — руды металлов, рыба и древесина ценнейших пород, в т. ч. канадский «кедр» — гигантская туя. (Знаменитый канадский «сахарный» клён со сладким соком, лист которого стал национальной эмблемой страны, растёт только на юго-востоке К.).
На климат центральной части страны оказывает охлаждающее воздействие глубоко врезающийся в сушу Гудзонов залив Северного Ледовитого океана, а восточной части — холодное Лабрадорское течение. Поэтому в К. холоднее, чем на тех же широтах в Европе. Как и в РФ, примерно 70% территории страны принято относить к районам Севера. Самые северные 40% площади К., которые расположены к северу от 60° северной широты и не входят в состав её 10 провинций (а выделены в 3 отдельные «территории» федерального подчинения), принято называть «Дальним Севером».
На К. приходится 8% мирового речного стока. Крупнейшие реки (км): бассейн Северного Ледовитого океана (75% территории страны) — Маккензи (4241) с её притоками Пис-Ривер (1923), Атабаска (1231), Лиард (1115); Нельсон (2575), Саскачеван (1939), Чёрчилл (1609); бассейн Атлантического океана (15% территории) — Св. Лаврентия (3058) и её приток Оттава (1271); бассейн Тихого океана (10% территории) — текущая на Аляску река Юкон (3185, в т. ч. канадская часть — 1149), Фрейзер (1370) и Колумбия (2000, в т.ч. канадская часть — 801). Озёрами (по разным данным, в К. 2—4 млн озёр) покрыто ок. 8% территории страны (это 14% всей водной площади озёр мира). К. делит с США систему Великих озёр (за исключением озера Мичиган): граница проходит по озёрам Верхнее (его канадская часть составляет 29 888 км2 из общей площади 84 243 км2), Гурон (39 473 из 63 096 км2), Эри (12 880 из 25 812 км2) и Онтарио (10 388 из 19 001 км2). Другие крупнейшие озёра (км2): Б. Медвежье (31 328), Б. Невольничье (28 568), Виннипег (24 387), Атабаска (7935).
Население
Население отдельных провинций и территорий (2003, тыс. чел.): Центральный район — Онтарио (12 240), Квебек (7490); Атлантический район — Ньюфаундленд и Лабрадор (520), Новая Шотландия (940), Нью-Брансуик (750), Остров Принца Эдуарда (140); Степной район («Прерии») — Манитоба (1160), Саскачеван (990), Альберта (3150); Тихоокеанский район — Британская Колумбия (4150); Дальний Север — Юкон (31), Северо-западные территории (42), Нунавут (27).
Наиболее крупные города (2002, тыс. чел., население в границах «переписных метрополитенских ареалов»): Торонто (5030), Монреаль (3550), Ванкувер (2120), Оттава (1130), Калгари (990), Эдмонтон (970), Квебек (700), Виннипег (690), Гамильтон (690), Китченер (440), Лондон (430), Сент-Катаринс — Ниагара (390), Галифакс (360), Виктория (320), Уинсор (320), Ошава (310), Саскатун (230), Реджайна (200), Сент-Джонс (180), Сагеней (160, до 2002 — Шикутими).
Формально К. можно рассматривать как малонаселённую страну (средняя плотность 3 чел. на 1 км2). Тем не менее юго-восточная часть страны (5% территории, где проживает 2/3 всех канадцев) заселена плотно (100 чел. на 1 км2). Более 3/4 населения страны живёт не далее 200 км от границы с США: реально заселённая часть («ойкумена») К. представляет собой «ленту», длина которой (с востока на запад) в 40 раз превосходит её ширину. В этом же поясе сосредоточены и практически все сельскохозяйственные площади страны. В очень богатых природными ресурсами (лес, гидроэнергия, нефть, газ, уголь, руды практически всех видов металлов) северных районах, занимающих 70% территории страны, проживает всего 1,5% её населения. В основном это аборигенные народы — индейцы и эскимосы (инуиты), а также приезжие жители посёлков при рудниках.
Городское население — 78%, фермерское — менее 3%; остальное — «сельское нефермерское» (занятое в несельскохозяйственных отраслях).
Рождаемость в 1998—2003 сократилась с 11,2 до 10,5‰, смертность сохранялась на уровне 7,2‰. Средняя продолжительность жизни мужчин 75 лет, женщин 81 год. Лица в возрасте до 5 лет — 6,3% всего населения, 5—19 лет — 20,1%, 20—44 года — 39,5%, 45—64 года — 21,7%, 65 лет и старше — 12,3% (1997).
В 1990-е гг. в К. ежегодно прибывало 200—250 тыс. чел. (при эмиграции 50 тыс. чел. в год — за счёт иммиграции обеспечивалось 2/3 прироста населения). В 2000 прибыло 227 тыс. чел., в т.ч. 53% — из стран Азиатско-Тихоокеанского региона (из них 16% — из КНР, 18% — из Индии и Пакистана), 19% — из стран Европы, 18% — из Африки и Ближнего Востока, 7,5% — из Центральной и Южной Америки, 2,5% — из США. Каждый 6-й житель К. родился за пределами страны.
В К. проживает не менее 100 различных этнических групп. Более 96% канадцев — потомки иммигрантов из разных стран, прибывших сюда за последние 4 века.
Два крупнейших народа — англоканадцев и франкоканадцев — принято называть «народами-основателями» К. Согласно «политике двуязычия», введённой федеральным «Актом об официальных языках» 1969 и закреплённой в конституционной «Хартии прав и свобод» 1982, все парламентские дебаты, государственные документы обязательно публикуются на английском и французском языках и лишь после этого вступают в силу.
Исторически первые народы, заселившие К., — это индейские народы, которые официально называются «первыми нациями К.». Ныне они живут по всей стране и говорят на 58 языках. Численность индейцев и их потомков (в т.ч. метисов) в 2001 составила 1,3 млн чел. Часть из них (350 тыс. в составе 608 зарегистрированных общин) проживает на территории 2,5 тыс. резерваций (30 тыс. км2), в рамках которых существуют племенное самоуправление и коллективные права на земли. Канадскую Арктику населяют эскимосы (50 тыс.), которых принято называть инуитами, что на их языке значит просто «люди». В 1999 была создана отдельная федеральная Территория Нунавут, где эскимосы составили 85% всего населения. Она заняла 1/5 площади всей К. (при населении менее 30 тыс. чел.).
По отношению ко всем другим этническим группам К. термины «нация» или «народ» не применяются. Их принято называть по схеме «этническое определение плюс канадцы» («украинские канадцы», «китайские канадцы» и т.д.). В политической культуре К. с 1971 принята концепция многокультурности, или «единства через многообразие» («одна нация — канадцы, два официальных языка, много этнических культур»); закреплена «Канадским Актом о многокультурности» (1988).
Переписи населения разной степени охвата проводятся каждые 10 лет (основные) и 5 лет (промежуточные), но ввиду различия в применявшихся критериях этнической принадлежности соответствующие данные переписей 1971—2001 трудно сопоставимы. Так, в ходе общеканадской переписи населения 1996 в текст вопросника относительно этнического происхождения респондента были включены «подсказки» 24 вариантов ответов: «английское», «французское», «украинское», и т.п. (оставлены также свободные места для других вариантов; указывалось также «чистое» либо «смешанное» происхождение), и среди них, впервые в истории переписей, был вариант: «канадское». Подобная же «подсказка» повторилась и в 2001. В 1991 без такой «подсказки» идентифицировали себя как просто «канадцы» лишь 2,8% населения страны . А в 1996 своё этническое происхождение как «чисто-канадское» определили уже 18,7% населения, в 2001 — даже 22,8%. «Чисто-британское» этническое происхождение (английское, шотландское, ирландское или валлийское) назвали в 1991 29,4% канадцев, в 1996 — только 17,1%, а в 2001 — всего 8,8%. «Чисто-французское» происхождение назвали в 1991 23,5%, в 1996 — 9,5%, а в 2001 — 3,6%. Остальные отнесли себя к группам либо «прочего», либо «смешанного» происхождения. Учитывая такие различия в самоидентификации и неодинаковые темпы ассимиляции «смешанных» групп, долю англоканадцев на кон. 20 в. можно оценить в 40% всего населения, а франкоканадцев — в 27%. Остальные — лица смешанного происхождения, а также германского (в 2001 — 710 тыс. «чистого» и еще 2 млн «смешанного»), итальянского (соответственно 730 тыс. и 540 тыс.), украинского (330 тыс. и 750 тыс.), китайского (940 тыс. и 160 тыс.), голландского (320 тыс. и 610 тыс.), польского (260 тыс. и 560 тыс.) и другого происхождения.
Родным языком в 2001 58,5% канадцев назвали английский (в 1971 — 60,2%), 22,6% — французский (26,9%), 2,9% — китайский (0,4%), 1,6% — итальянский (2,5%), 1,5% — немецкий (2,6%), 0,8% — испанский (0,1%), 0,7% — польский (0,6%), 0,7% — португальский (0,4%), 0,5% — украинский (1,4%), 0,2% — русский (0,1%).
Единственным официальным языком провинции Квебек (где проживает 80% всех франкоканадцев) местными законами (№ 22 с 1974 и № 101 с 1977, конституционность которых оспаривается федеральными властями) провозглашён только французский. Официальными языками провинции Нью-Брансуик признаны одновременно английский и французский; других провинций и территории Юкон — только английский. Официальными языками Северо-Западных территорий (из которых в 1999 выделилась Территория Нунавут) в 1990 были провозглашены 8 языков: английский, французский, эскимосский (инуктитут) и индейские языки — догриб, чипевайан, гвичин, слейви и кри.
Крупнейшая церковь — католическая. К ней относят себя 45,2% всех канадцев (преимущественно французского, итальянского, ирландского, польского и иберийско-латиноамериканского происхождения). Существует отдельная украино-католическая церковь (униаты) — 0,5%. Англоканадцы — в большинстве прихожане протестантской Объединённой церкви К., созданной в 1925 в результате объединения части пресвитерианских, баптистских, конгрегационистских и евангелистских общин (11,5% всех жителей страны), англиканской (8,1%) и ряда других протестантских церквей. Более 10% жителей К. — прихожане менее крупных протестантских церквей и сект. В их числе лютеране — 2,4% (часть канадцев немецкого и скандинавского происхождения), кальвинисты-пресвитериане — 2,4% (часть шотландцев), баптисты — 2,5%, пятидесятники — 1,6%, меннониты и гуттериты (немцы, иммигрировавшие более века назад из России) — 0,8%, русские духоборы — 0,1% и многие другие. Православных (греки, часть русских и украинцев) — ок. 1%. Из нехристианских религий в К. представлены иудаизм — 1,2% всех канадцев, ислам — 0,9%, буддизм — 0,6%, индуизм — 0,6% и сикхизм — 0,5%. Неверующие составляют 12,5% жителей страны.
История
На протяжении длительного периода истории К. не была самостоятельным государством. С нач. 17 в. она была владением Франции. С 1763 в результате Семилетней войны стала владением Великобритании. С 1 июля 1867 первой из британских колоний К. получила статус самоуправляемого британского доминиона.
Ок. 25 тыс. лет назад территория К. была заселена предками индейцев, перебравшимися из Азии через существовавший тогда на месте Берингова пролива сухопутный перешеек. Значительно позже — 6 тыс. лет назад — в её арктическую часть тем же путём пришли эскимосы. Первые европейцы появились в К. ещё в 1000 н.э., когда возникло норманнское поселение на острове Ньюфаундленд, просуществовавшее немногим более года. В 1497 итальянец на английской службе Джон Кабот достиг Ньюфаундленда. Французский моряк Жак Картье в 1534 исследовал и нанёс на карты залив Св. Лаврентия, а в 1535 поднялся вверх по реке Св. Лаврентия до индейского селения Стадакона (места, где теперь стоит Квебек). Он вступил в контакт с местными индейцами-ирокезами и объявил окрестные земли владением французского короля, дав им название «К.» (на языке ирокезов это означало просто «деревня»). Старейший город К. Квебек основал в 1608 Самюэль де Шамплен (1567—1635) — французский путешественник и государственный деятель, получивший в 1601 титул «королевского географа». Он первый из европейцев прошёл вверх по реке Св. Лаврентия в Великие озёра (до озера Гурон в 1615—16), исследовал их берега и заключил союз с индейским племенем гуронов. С 1633 Шамплен — генерал-губернатор «Новой Франции» (будущей К.). Торговля пушниной с индейцами стимулировала французскую колонизацию, которая стала особенно активно распространяться со 2-й пол. 17 в.
Одновременно с французской развивалась и английская колонизация. Британская мехоторговая Компания Гудзонова залива завладела большой территорией на севере страны. На юге же расширение английских колоний (на территории будущих США) приводило к постоянным англо-французским конфликтам, в которые втягивались и индейские племена. После Семилетней войны между Англией и Францией, по Парижскому договору 1763 К. стала владением Великобритании. Французы, поселившиеся в долине реки Св. Лаврентия и сохранившие феодальные порядки старой метрополии, составили основу населения провинции Квебек. Английские иммигранты заселяли Атлантическое побережье и берега Великих озёр. После окончания войны за независимость США 1775—83 в К. бежало не менее 40 тыс. сторонников британской короны — «лоялистов»; они и составили ядро англоканадского народа. В 1867 согласно принятому британским парламентом «Акту о Британской Северной Америке» был создан британский доминион К., имеющий государственный статус самоуправляемого государства, но с британским монархом в качестве его главы. Первоначально он состоял из 4 провинций: Онтарио, Квебека, Нью-Брансуика и Новой Шотландии, составивших конфедерацию, к которой позже присоединились ещё 5 провинций. Территория К. приобрела современные очертания к 1949, когда в её состав вошёл бывший отдельный британский доминион Ньюфаундленд в качестве 10-й провинции.
В 20 в. усилилась ориентация К. на проведение независимой от Великобритании политики. Этому содействовало и растущее влияние США на экономику страны. Вехами утверждения суверенитета К. были принятие Вестминстерского Статута 1931, признавшего полную самостоятельность британских доминионов во внутренней и внешней политике, Акта о канадском гражданстве 1947 и Конституционного акта 1982. Принятие последнего канадским парламентом получило в стране название «патриации Конституции». В 1982 в соответствии с Актом о К. страна получила право на любые изменения своей Конституции, т.е. полную независимость.
Государственное устройство и политическая система
Формально К. — конституционная монархия, фактически — федеративное демократическое государство с парламентской формой правления. Образовано в 1867 принятым британским парламентом Актом о Британской Северной Америке. Он являлся Основным законом страны вплоть до 1982, когда канадский парламент принял новый Конституционный акт. Последний консолидировал Акт 1867 и все дополнения к нему, добавил формулу изменения Конституции, а также Хартию прав и свобод. Составной частью Конституции являются, кроме того, некоторые неписаные обычаи, регулирующие, например, формирование правительства страны.
Административное деление — 10 провинций и 3 территории федерального подчинения.
Реальная власть принадлежит парламенту, который выполняет законодательные и исполнительные функции и состоит из монарха (с 1953 — английская королева Елизавета II), сената и палаты общин. Монарха в стране на постоянной основе представляет генерал-губернатор, назначаемый (с 1952 — из канадских граждан) по рекомендации премьер-министра К. и обладающий лишь символическими, главным образом церемониальными, полномочиями. В 1993—2003 пост премьер-министра занимал Жан Кретьен; в декабре 2003 его сменил на посту лидера правящей (Либеральной) партии и премьер-министра страны Поль Мартин. Генерал-губернатор (с 1999) — г-жа Адриенн Кларксон.
В парламенте ведущая роль принадлежит палате общин, 301 член которой избирается всеобщим, прямым, тайным голосованием в одномандатных округах, по мажоритарной системе, сроком на 5 лет (фактически выборы проводятся чаще — по назначению стоящего у власти правительства). Лидер партии, получившей на выборах наибольшее число мест в палате, становится премьер-министром и формирует правительство страны. Партия, ставшая 2-й по числу мест, традиционно носит название «официальной оппозиции». Палата общин принимает решения по всем вопросам, выносимым на её рассмотрение правительством.
Сенат (104 места) рассматривает и, как правило, утверждает законопроекты, принятые палатой общин. Однако он не имеет права законодательной инициативы по финансовым вопросам, контроля над исполнительной властью, вотума недоверия правительству. В целом канадский сенат гораздо менее влиятелен, чем, например, сенат США. Сенаторы назначаются генерал-губернатором по рекомендации премьер-министра по определённой норме представительства от субъектов федерации и уходят в отставку по достижении 70 лет.
По форме государственного устройства К. — федерация, состоящая из 10 провинций и 3 территорий. По Конституции регулирование большинства важнейших вопросов жизнедеятельности страны (прямое налогообложение, торговля, денежное обращение, банковская деятельность, транспорт и связь, гражданство, внешняя политика и оборона) входит в компетенцию федерации. Провинции ведают вопросами имущественных и гражданских прав, косвенного налогообложения, использования природных ресурсов (что является одним из основных источников доходов провинциальных бюджетов в виде сбора за право разработки недр — роялти), трудовых отношений, образования, здравоохранения, местного законодательства и самоуправления. В сферу совместной компетенции входят иммиграция, развитие сельского хозяйства.
Глава государства представлен в провинции лейтенант-губернатором, назначаемым генерал-губернатором по рекомендации премьер-министра страны (и тоже осуществляющим преимущественно лишь церемониальные функции). Законодательная и исполнительная власть принадлежат однопалатным Законодательным собраниям (в Квебеке — Национальной ассамблее). Принцип формирования провинциальных правительств — тот же, что и федерального.
Судебная система К. имеет три уровня — федеральный, провинциальный и территориальный. Высшим судебным органом страны является Верховный суд. По Конституционному акту 1982 Верховный суд помимо прежних полномочий последней инстанции по уголовным и гражданским делам получил полномочия Конституционного суда. 9 судей Верховного суда назначаются генерал-губернатором по рекомендации премьер-министра и уходят со своего поста по достижении 70 лет. Федеральный суд рассматривает дела по вопросам морского права, подоходного налогообложения, патентов, таможни.
В К. на федеральном уровне у власти с 1867 находились только две партии — Прогрессивно-консервативная (возникла в 1854) и Либеральная (основана в 1873), которые формировались и функционировали по образцу аналогичных партий Великобритании. После 1-й мировой войны наряду с консерваторами и либералами в федеральном парламенте были в разное время представлены 1—3 малые партии, иногда существенно влиявшие на политику правительства. В провинциях у власти находятся партии, носящие, как правило, те же названия, однако большинство их не имеет организационных связей со своими федеральными аналогами и не подчиняется их решениям.
Либеральная партия в 20 в. доминировала на федеральной арене, выиграв 18 всеобщих выборов из 28, при этом после 2-й мировой войны — 12 из 18. Её деятели проявили себя более гибкими политиками и умелыми правителями, чем их основные соперники — консерваторы. Успешно удерживает позицию в центре политического спектра К. В основе политической программы партии — приверженность принципу свободного предпринимательства при активной регулирующей роли государства, стремление укрепить федеральную власть, сохранить ведущие отрасли экономики страны под национальным контролем, диверсифицировать её внешнеэкономические и политические связи, отстаивать самобытность культуры и самостоятельность внешней политики К. В 1982 либералы во главе с тогдашним премьер-министром Пьером Трюдо (находился у власти в 1968—79 и 1980—84) осуществили «патриацию» канадской Конституции, ликвидировав формальные остатки былой зависимости К. от Великобритании. На выборах 1997 либералы получили 155 мест, в 2000 — 172 места.
Прогрессивно-консервативная партия с 1900 добивалась власти 10 раз, из них 6 — после 1945. Её поддерживают большая часть англоязычных жителей мелких городов и сельской местности, особенно в западной части страны, состоятельные фермеры и предприниматели, протестанты. Партия выступает за ограничение вмешательства государства в экономику, сокращение государственных расходов, была инициатором ослабления контроля над иностранным капиталом, Соглашения о свободной торговле с США в 1988. Попытки правительства Б. Малруни (премьер-министр в 1984—93) укрепить единство К. путём конституционных уступок Квебеку и заодно всем другим провинциям провалились.
На выборах 1993 консерваторы потерпели беспрецедентное в своей истории поражение: имея до этого 167 депутатов в палате общин, они смогли получить в ней всего 2 места, что поставило старейшую партию К. под угрозу исчезновения. На выборах 1997 консерваторы получили 12 мест, в 2000 — 20 мест.
Новая демократическая партия (НДП) образована в 1961 путём слияния Федерации кооперативного содружества, созданной в 1932, с руководством Канадского рабочего конгресса — крупнейшего профсоюзного центра страны. Единственная социал-демократическая партия Северной Америки. Входит в Социалистический интернационал. Отстаивает государственное регулирование экономики, эффективную систему социального обеспечения, признание «особого статуса» Квебека в децентрализованной федерации. Выступает против господства иностранного капитала в ключевых отраслях. НДП неоднократно находилась у власти в различных провинциях. Пик влияния НДП пришёлся на 1970—80-е, когда число её депутатов в федеральном парламенте доходило до 43. Однако на выборах 1993 новые демократы получили всего 9 мандатов. На выборах 1997 НДП получила 21 место, в 2000 — 13 мест.
Квебекский блок был создан в 1990 суверенистами провинции Квебек (сторонниками «суверенитет-ассоциации» — политического суверенитета этой франкоязычной провинции, при сохранении её экономической ассоциации с «остальной К.»), чтобы отстаивать свои интересы на федеральной арене. До этого момента они ограничивались политической деятельностью в самой провинции, объединившись в Квебекскую партию. На всеобщих выборах 1993, получив поддержку определённых средних слоёв, интеллигенции, молодёжи Квебека, провёл в палату общин 54 депутата и занял место официальной оппозиции. На всеобщих выборах 1997 КБ получил 44 места, а в 2000 — 38 мест.
Канадский консервативный альянс реформ возник (первоначально под названием «Партия реформ») в 1989 в провинции Альберта как выразитель недовольства местного мелкого и среднего бизнеса политикой федеральных властей, традиционно отражающей интересы крупного капитала Центральной К. Выступил за децентрализацию федерации, за усиление роли провинций в формировании сената и Верховного суда страны, в контроле над её природными ресурсами, за отмену закона о двуязычии, против каких-либо уступок Квебеку. Получил поддержку большинства фермерства, жителей мелких и средних городов во всех провинциях Запада, где к тому же весьма сильны настроения англосаксонского шовинизма. На выборах 1993 провёл в палату общин 52 депутата и стал оспаривать место «официальной оппозиции» у Квебекского блока. Это удалось сделать в результате выборов 1997, когда реформисты выиграли 60 мандатов, а в 2000 — уже 66 мандатов.
В кон. 2003 Канадский консервативный альянс реформ и Прогрессивно-консервативная партия объявили о намерении создать объединённую консервативную партию.
Из партий, действующих только на провинциальной арене, представляет особый интерес Квебекская партия в провинции Квебек. Возникла в 1967 и уже на провинциальных выборах 1976 пришла к власти под лозунгом «суверенитет-ассоциация». В 1980 провела провинциальный референдум по вопросу о суверенитете и потерпела поражение, получив только 40% голосов. На выборах 1985 уступила власть провинциальным либералам. В 1994 снова пришла к власти и в 1995 провела 2-й референдум по тому же вопросу. На этот раз её призыв поддержали 49,4% голосовавших. Платформа партии носит во многом социал-демократический характер: призыв к диалогу с профсоюзами, социальной обеспеченности населения, солидарной ответственности всех квебекцев. Но главное — КП проповедует и реализует политику всемерного укрепления и поощрения французского языка и культуры в провинции. На провинциальных выборах 2003 КП не смогла добиться большинства в законодательном собрании (Национальной ассамблее) Квебека и лишилась власти в провинции (которая перешла к правительству, сформированному Либеральной партией Квебека).
Общественные организации. Канадский рабочий конгресс — крупнейший общенациональный профцентр, более 2,3 млн членов. Создан в 1956 путём слияния Профессионального и рабочего конгресса К. (цеховые профсоюзы, состоявшие в Американской федерации труда) и Канадского конгресса труда (профсоюзы, состоявшие в Конгрессе производственных профсоюзов США, а также канадские национальные профсоюзы).
Конфедерация национальных профсоюзов, 2-й по значению профцентр страны. Возникла в 1921 как Канадская католическая конфедерация труда, состоявшая только из национальных профсоюзов Квебека, которые находились под сильным влиянием католической церкви. В 1960 изъяла из программы ссылки на социальную доктрину церкви и приняла современное название.
Национальный союз фермеров — крупнейшая фермерская организация страны, созданная в 1969.
Деловой совет по национальным вопросам — самая влиятельная организация крупного канадского бизнеса. Создан в 1977, объединяет высших руководителей 140 крупнейших корпораций К. К 2004 сменил своё название на Канадский совет главных управляющих.
Канадская торговая палата — объединение предпринимателей и представителей корпораций, созданное в 1929. Насчитывает ок. 200 тыс. индивидуальных и коллективных членов.
Союз промышленников и экспортёров К. Создан в 1996 в результате объединения старейшей предпринимательской организации страны — Канадской ассоциации промышленников (основана в 1871) и Канадской ассоциации экспортёров (основана в 1943). Насчитывает 50 тыс. членов.
Братство инуитов К. (БИК; Инуит Тапирисат). Основано в 1971 активистами движения канадских инуитов (эскимосов) в защиту их экономических интересов и культуры в процессе освоения Севера К. канадскими и иностранными корпорациями. Целями БИК являются сохранение языка и развитие культуры инуитов, оказание содействия в выявлении их нужд и чаяний, в установлении и укреплении связей между всеми поселениями инуитов, формулирование и защита их требований на переговорах с властями всех уровней, чтобы добиться полного участия инуитов в жизни канадского общества. Совет директоров БИК состоит из президентов 6 региональных ассоциаций и 4 членов, избираемых на двухлетний срок на ежегодных собраниях представителей местных общин. Входит в международную организацию «Инуитская приполярная конференция», в которой также состоят аналогичные по структуре объединения эскимосов Аляски и Гренландии.
Ассамблея Первых Наций — общеканадская политическая организация, представляющая интересы статусных индейцев (признаваемых таковыми федеральным Законом об индейцах 1951). Создана в 1980 на встрече вождей большинства индейских племён страны. Возглавляется главным вождём, избираемым на 3 года общим собранием вождей, и 6 вице-вождями, избираемыми региональными объединениями. Содействует своим членам консультациями и разработкой требований к властям по вопросам социального обеспечения и экономического развития, образования, медицинского обслуживания, выступает в защиту интересов индейцев по этим вопросам перед федеральным правительством, добивается законодательного закрепления земельных и иных прав индейцев, предусмотренных в договорах с британскими властями колониального периода и в судебных решениях последующих лет.
Совет коренных народов К. (СКНК). Возник в 1968 как политическая организация метисов и нестатусных индейцев (не подпадающих под действие федерального Закона об индейцах). Состоит из провинциальных и территориальных организаций, президенты которых образуют совет директоров СКНК. Деятельность СКНК финансируется федеральным правительством. СКНК добивается признания «исторической и культурной неповторимости» метисов и нестатусных индейцев и предоставления им прав, признаваемых за другими аборигенными народами страны. В 1983 от СКНК откололись провинциальные ассоциации 3 Степных провинций; они образовали Национальный совет метисов.
Акт о Британской Северной Америке 1867 предоставил федеральному центру чрезвычайно широкие полномочия, которые использовались им, как правило, в интересах торговой и финансовой элиты экономического центра К. — провинции Онтарио. Но в 20 в. в стране образовались мощные региональные экономические и политические группировки, которые стали добиваться расширения полномочий провинций для более эффективного отражения своих интересов в политике федерального правительства. Под их непрерывным нажимом центр неоднократно уступал провинциям часть своих полномочий. В итоге К. стала одной из самых децентрализованных федераций в мире, и процесс этот продолжается, ослабляя целостность страны. Главным политическим механизмом урегулирования разногласий и противоречий между центром и субъектами федерации стали федерально-провинциальные конференции, вначале специальные, редкие, а затем регулярные, на уровне глав федерального и провинциальных правительств, а также министров, руководящих аналогичными ведомствами (например, финансов, просвещения и т.п.). Наиболее мощным экономическим рычагом противодействия ослаблению федерации являются т. н. «уравнивающие платежи», которые выделяются центральным правительством из федерального бюджета более бедным провинциям для поддержания в них среднего по стране уровня социального обслуживания и налогообложения. Однако после 1993 меры по сокращению дефицита федерального бюджета заметно уменьшили размеры таких платежей, что вело к новому обострению федерально-провинциальных отношений. Федеральное правительство стремится также укрепить экономическое единство федерации, выступая за устранение многочисленных ограничений торговли, которые с давних пор существуют между провинциями. В 1994 Оттава добилась согласия провинций на ликвидацию подобных препятствий для взаимной торговли, однако его реализация идёт с трудом, особенно в Квебеке, требующем для себя особых прав на введение мер по защите своей уникальной культуры, прежде всего французского языка. Остальные — англоязычные провинции, прежде всего Британская Колумбия и Альберта, выступают против предоставления Квебеку каких-либо исключительных полномочий и, в свою очередь, требуют распространения на них любых уступок, которые федеральное правительство сделает Квебеку.
Главными задачами внешней политики К. после 2-й мировой войны долгие годы являлось обеспечение национальной (и международной) безопасности и экономического процветания страны. В условиях «холодной войны» это означало прежде всего предотвращение войны между СССР и США. После окончания «холодной войны» эти приоритеты поменялись местами, а в 1995 правительством либеральной партии к ним была добавлена задача продвижения за рубежом «канадских ценностей» и достижений культуры.
Объективная заинтересованность К. в многосторонних усилиях по обеспечению мира и её двуязычие привели к тому, что она стала основателем многих и членом практически всех основных международных организаций. К. — единственная страна в мире, которая является членом одновременно и Содружества наций, и Международной ассоциации стран французского языка («Франкофонии»).
После начала «холодной войны» К. выступила одним из инициаторов создания НАТО в 1949, поддерживала все основные действия этой организации.
Вместе с тем выступала за решение спорных вопросов со странами Варшавского Договора, с СССР, а затем с РФ путём переговоров, компромиссов, не допуская опасности возникновения вооружённого конфликта.
К. активно выступает против нарушений прав человека, за принятие мировым сообществом самых строгих мер против государств, нарушающих международные законы в этой области. В немалой степени это объясняется многонациональным составом канадского населения, особенно послевоенной иммиграции, представители которой ревностно следят за тем, что происходит на их бывшей родине.
В годы «холодной войны» К. заслужила репутацию посредника в урегулировании споров и конфликтов между государствами. Особую известность К. приобрела в качестве миротворца — вплоть до 1994 она принимала участие во всех операциях по поддержанию мира под эгидой ООН и почти во всех операциях такого типа вне её рамок. Инициатива организации подобных операций принадлежала в 1957 министру иностранных дел К. тех лет Л. Пирсону, который был удостоен за неё Нобелевской премии мира.
В первые послевоенные годы К. приобрела также репутацию выразителя и защитника интересов молодых независимых государств — бывших колоний. В дальнейшем к ней прибавилась известность крупного донора, осуществляющего многочисленные программы помощи экономическому развитию таких стран (главным образом через правительственное Канадское агентство международного развития).
К. неоднократно выступала с инициативами в области контроля над вооружениями и разоружения. Так, в 1996 она решительно возглавила кампанию за запрещение противопехотных мин, которая привела в декабре 1997 к подписанию соответствующего международного соглашения представителями более чем 100 стран на созванной по приглашению К. конференции в Оттаве.
Главным направлением канадской внешней политики являются её отношения с США. Соглашения о свободной торговле, заключённые между ними в 1988 и 1993 (с участием Мексики), служат эффективным ускорителем процесса североамериканской экономической интеграции. Вместе с тем между К. и США существуют иногда весьма острые расхождения по ряду проблем как двусторонних (особенно экономических), так и международных отношений. В первую очередь это касается американских ограничений ввоза различных канадских товаров, режима эксплуатации биологических и минеральных ресурсов морских приграничных районов, канадских мер по защите национальной культуры от экспансии американской массовой культуры и т. д.
В 1970 К. признала КНР и установила с ней дипломатические отношения вопреки отрицательной реакции США. К. осудила намерение американского сената в 1995 отменить в одностороннем порядке введённое ООН эмбарго на поставки оружия в бывшую Югославию. В 1996 вместе со странами ЕС и РФ выступила против попыток США навязать им свои меры, направленные против Ирана и Ливии под предлогом борьбы с международным терроризмом. К. упорно отвергала попытки США заставить её участвовать в политической и экономической блокаде Кубы.
В своей военной политике К. исходя из факта окончания «холодной войны» и отсутствия непосредственной прямой военной угрозы её безопасности осуществила значительное сокращение расходов на оборону и общей численности своих Вооружённых сил. Помимо обеспечения безопасности страны, защиты её суверенитета и оказания содействия гражданским властям в обеспечении закона и правопорядка, главными задачами Вооружённых сил К. являются продолжение сотрудничества с США в мероприятиях по обороне североамериканского континента, прежде всего по соглашению о НОРАД (совместное командование аэрокосмической обороны Северной Америки), а также выполнение традиционных обязательств К. в ООН, НАТО и ОБСЕ по обеспечению международной безопасности.
Вооружённые силы К. комплектуются на контрактной основе и состоят из Сухопутных войск (армии), Военно-морских и Военно-воздушных сил. Общая численность Вооружённых сил (1997) — 62 тыс. чел. в регулярных войсках и 84 тыс. чел. в резерве. Ещё 2,4 тыс. канадских военнослужащих несут службу за границей в составе 17 многосторонних миссий по поддержанию мира. Непосредственное руководство ВС К. осуществляет Министерство национальной обороны.
Канадо-российские отношения. Межгосударственные отношения между К. и РФ официально установлены 25 декабря 1991. Одновременно между РФ и К. были установлены дипломатические отношения на уровне посольств (дипломатические отношения с СССР были установлены в 1942). К договорно-правовой базе российско-канадских отношений относятся прежде всего Декларация о дружбе и сотрудничестве между РФ и К., Меморандум о взаимопонимании относительно консультаций между правительствами РФ и К., а также Договор о согласии и сотрудничестве между РФ и К. (подписаны в ходе визитов президента РФ Б.Н. Ельцина в К. в феврале и июне 1992). Соглашения, меморандумы, совместные заявления — о торговых и коммерческих отношениях (июнь 1992), по которому обе стороны предоставили друг другу режим наибольшего благоприятствования, об экономическом сотрудничестве (май 1993), о сотрудничестве в Арктике и на Севере (июнь 1992), в области сельского хозяйства (июнь 1992), об избежании двойного налогообложения (октябрь 1995), мирного использования ядерной энергии (апрель 1996), строительства, в сфере обменов в области образования, науки, культуры и целый ряд других — регулируют соответствующие виды двустороннего взаимодействия.
К. осуществляет программу технической помощи РФ в таких областях, как энергетика, сельское хозяйство, освоение Севера, охрана окружающей среды, поощрение мелкого бизнеса, безопасность ядерных энергетических установок и т.д.
В целях поощрения торговли с РФ канадское правительство регулярно выделяет кредиты на российские закупки канадских товаров. Однако торгово-экономические связи являются, по признанию обеих сторон, отстающим участком российско-канадских отношений.
Для координации усилий по содействию развитию торгово-экономического сотрудничества создана Межправительственная российско-канадская экономическая комиссия, заседающая ежегодно попеременно в Москве и в Оттаве. В её структуре образованы подкомиссии и рабочие группы по агропромышленному комплексу, топливу и энергетике, промышленному развитию в высокотехнологичных отраслях (телекоммуникации, аэрокосмическая промышленность, программное обеспечение), сотрудничеству в сфере науки и технологий и др. Достигнута договорённость уделить особое внимание активизации экономических связей и других совместных действий в Арктике и на Севере, прежде всего по таким направлениям, как транспорт, строительство, защита окружающей среды и контакты между коренными народами Севера.
Экономика
Основные факторы, влияющие на хозяйственную систему К.: соседство США и постоянное развитие экономической интеграции между двумя странами; огромная территория и относительно малочисленное население; богатство природных ресурсов; особая роль импорта капитала и иммиграции в экономическом развитии.
Формирование в Северной Америке регионального хозяйственного комплекса ускорилось после вступления в силу в 1989 Соглашения о свободной торговле между К. и США. С 1994 начало действовать Северо-американское соглашение о свободной торговле (НАФТА) с участием США, К. и Мексики. Стороны взяли на себя обязательства всемерно содействовать торговле, облегчать доступ иностранных инвесторов на внутренний рынок, расширяя права всех инвесторов и ограничивая государственное регулирование экономики.
Либерализация торгово-инвестиционного режима оказывает многостороннее воздействие на хозяйственное развитие и политику государства. При относительно небольшом объёме внутреннего рынка растущие взаимосвязи с экономикой США означают и растущее влияние с их стороны. В 2000—2003 на США приходилось ок. 83% экспорта товаров и 60% иностранных прямых инвестиций К. В свою очередь 67% накопленных иностранных прямых инвестиций в экономику К. — это американский капитал. Американские транснациональные корпорации занимают очень сильные позиции в целом ряде ключевых отраслей. На долю предприятий, контролируемых иностранным, преимущественно американским, капиталом, в 2002 приходилось 53% объёма продаж продукции обрабатывающей промышленности (в автомобилестроении — св. 85%), более 40% нефтедобычи, 60% совокупного оборота в оптовой торговле.
Интеграция стимулирует интенсивную структурную перестройку. Резко возросший уровень открытости для иностранных инвесторов создал более жёсткую конкурентную среду в большинстве секторов хозяйства. В 1990-е гг. ок. 90% всех компаний осуществляли реструктуризацию, т.е. меняли масштабы и специализацию бизнеса, вкладывали средства в обновление технологий, номенклатуры выпускаемой продукции и методов управления. Причем в 1-й пол. 1990-х гг. общий объём инвестиций в предпринимательском секторе экономики увеличивался очень медленно, и реформы сопровождались сокращением занятости.
В 1990—96 развитие экономики было неустойчивым, темпы прироста ВВП составляли 1,8% в среднем ежегодно. Затем инвестиционный процесс в предпринимательском секторе заметно активизировался, произошло оживление потребительского спроса и начался подъём в жилищном строительстве. В 1997—2000 реальный прирост ВВП в К., как и в США, составлял 4% в год и более, и по темпам хозяйственного развития обе страны заметно превосходили государства Западной Европы и Японию. Торможение деловой активности в США в 2001—02 повлияло и на К., но все же реальный прирост ВВП составил здесь в 2002 3,3% и был примерно вдвое выше среднего показателя по странам — членам ОЭСР.
Объём ВВП К. в текущих ценах достиг в 2003 1228,9 млрд канадских долл. (927 млрд долл. США), в расчёте на душу населения — ок. 28,9 тыс. долл. США, с учётом паритета покупательной способности валют — ок. 30 тыс. долл.
В январе 2004 в стране насчитывалось 15 914 тыс. занятых (из них 46,4% — женщины) и 1266 тыс. безработных (из них 43% — женщины). 89% мужчин и 72,3% женщин работают в режиме полной занятости. Средний размер заработной платы в IV кв. 2003 ок. 700 канадских долл. в неделю. Среднегодовая заработная плата в 2002 37,5 тыс. канадских долл. у мужчин и ок. 24 тыс. у женщин. Безработица была очень острой проблемой в 1-й пол. 1990-х гг., когда её уровень достигал 10—11%. В 1997—2003 прирост занятости заметно ускорился, было создано ок. 3 млн новых рабочих мест. Уровень безработицы в 2003 — 7,6%, ситуация на рынке труда в К. остаётся более благополучной, чем во многих других индустриальных странах.
Инфляция с 1993 колебалась в пределах 2% в год. В 2003 индекс цен на потребительские товары и услуги повысился всего на 1,5%.
Структура канадской экономики типична для высокоразвитых индустриальных стран. На сферу материального производства в 2003 приходилось 30,7% ВВП и 25,6% занятых. Удельный вес обрабатывающей промышленности в ВВП составлял 16,9%, строительства — 5,2%, горнодобывающей промышленности (включая добычу нефти и газа) — 3,7%, электроэнергетики и отраслей коммунального хозяйства — 2,8%, сельского, лесного хозяйства и рыболовства — 2,0%.
В отраслях услуг производилось 69,3% ВВП и было занято 74,4% всех работающих канадцев. На услуги в сфере финансов, страхования и операций с недвижимостью приходилось 20,0% ВВП, на оптовую торговлю — 6,0%, на здравоохранение и социальное обеспечение — 5,8, на розничную торговлю — 5,7, на транспортные услуги — 4,6, на информационные услуги и культуру — 4,6, на образовательные услуги — 4,6, на научно-технические и прочие услуги специалистов — 4,6%. В кон. 1990-х гг. официальная статистика в К. перешла на единые с США стандарты отраслевой классификации.
Обрабатывающий сектор и наукоёмкие отрасли. В 1990-е гг. в результате структурных сдвигов численность рабочих мест сокращалась в первую очередь в канадских филиалах американских компаний, производящих аналогичную продукцию в обеих странах. В швейной, текстильной и пищевой промышленности большое число рабочих мест было ликвидировано из-за возросшей конкуренции со стороны импортной продукции. В то же время в ряде отраслей, получивших расширенный доступ на американский рынок, наблюдался рост производства и занятости. В 2003 в обрабатывающем секторе было занято 15,1% работающего населения.
Канадские компании имеют сильные позиции в таких наукоёмких секторах современной экономики, как телекоммуникации, биотехнологии, авиационно-космическая промышленность, производство приборов и оборудования с использованием волоконной оптики, производство новых типов конструкционных материалов и фармацевтической продукции. Как производитель авиационной техники К. занимает 5-е место в мире. Как производитель легковых и грузовых автомобилей — 7-е место. На отрасли, связанные с информационными технологиями, приходится ок. 15% всего объёма производимых товаров и услуг.
При этом по сравнению с другими ведущими индустриальными странами структура обрабатывающего сектора остаётся относительно менее диверсифицированной. В производстве и экспорте готовых изделий очень высок удельный вес автомобилестроения и смежных отраслей, тогда как внутренний спрос на многие виды промышленного оборудования и сложной техники удовлетворяется преимущественно за счёт импорта. В 2002 на автомобилестроение приходилось ок. 23,4% всего экспорта, при этом на рынке США реализовывалось примерно 85% произведённых в К. автомобилей. Работники этой и смежных отраслей составляли ок. 11% всего занятого населения. Со 2-й пол. 1990-х гг. автомобилестроительные корпорации сокращают мощности в К. (наращивая их в южных штатах США и в Мексике), что отрицательно влияет на общую хозяйственную конъюнктуру в стране. Поэтому в современных условиях особое значение для устойчивого развития экономики приобретает отраслевая диверсификация промышленности, создание благоприятного климата для внедрения в производство новых технологий и новых видов продукции.
Горнодобывающий, лесной и нефтегазовый секторы. К. относится к числу крупнейших производителей минерального сырья — урановой руды, никеля, цинка, меди, асбеста, металлов платиновой группы и т.п. Ок. 80% минерального сырья и полуфабрикатов отправляется на экспорт. При этом 80% сырьевого экспорта из К. поступает в США, 11% — в страны Европы и Японию.
К. обеспечивает собственные потребности в нефтепродуктах и занимает 3-е место в мире по добыче природного газа. Его экспорт из К. покрывает более 60% потребностей США в импортном газе.
Леса занимают ок. 45% всей территории страны. Технологии в отраслях лесопромышленного комплекса относятся к числу самых передовых в мире. Более половины продукции экспортируется в США.
В сумме в отраслях «ресурсного сектора» занято 1,8% всех работников, тогда как производится здесь ок. 4% ВВП.
Сельское хозяйство отличается высокой эффективностью. В 2003 в нём было занято 2% работников и произведено ок. 2% ВВП. По сравнению с 1996 число фермерских хозяйств сократилось на 10%. Канадские сельскохозяйственные производители испытывают растущее давление со стороны американских конкурентов. По объёму экспорта продукции отрасли К. занимает 3-е место в мире после США и Франции. Главный экспортный продукт — пшеница, на внешние рынки поставляются также растительное масло, мясо и молочная продукция.
Строительная индустрия (5,2% ВВП и 5,7% занятых) также отличается высокой эффективностью. Широкую известность в мире получили применяемые в К. материалы и технологии промышленного и жилищного строительства в условиях северного климата.
В секторе услуг в общей численности занятых наиболее высок удельный вес оптовой и розничной торговли (в сумме 15,8%), а также отраслей социальной сферы: здравоохранение и социальное обеспечение (10,4%), образование (6,6%). Примерно по 6% занятых приходится на группу финансово-страховых услуг и группу научно-технических и экспертных услуг. Доля работников, занятых в государственном управлении, — 5%.
В сфере оптовой и розничной торговли в 1990-е гг. резко обострилась борьба между крупными канадскими и американскими корпорациями. Активно шли процессы слияний и поглощений, поскольку американские «сетевые гиганты» скупали действующие и создавали новые предприятия, а канадские торговые компании, чтобы противостоять конкурентам, укрупнялись путём слияний и создания партнёрств с различными предприятиями сферы услуг. Конкурентная среда в сфере торговли стала более жёсткой и из-за развития «электронной коммерции». Доля иностранных компаний в общей сумме продаж составила в 2002 36% в розничной торговле и св. 60% — в оптовой. На 5 крупнейших корпораций в розничной торговле приходится 97% объёма продаж.
До нач. 1990-х гг. на транспорте и в связи, а также в энергетике и отраслях коммунального хозяйства была высока доля государственной собственности. Железнодорожный транспорт, пассажирские авиаперевозки, средства международной связи со странами вне Северной Америки находились главным образом в собственности федеральных корпораций. С сер. 1990-х гг. после проведения массовой приватизации почти все предприятия транспорта и связи находятся в частной собственности. Морские и речные порты, аэропорты, каналы и т.п. переведены под управление смешанных, частно-государственных консорциумов. Ликвидирована система субсидирования автоперевозок, железнодорожного и водного транспорта.
Ведущую роль в перевозках пассажиров и грузов в К. играет автомобильный транспорт. В 2002 им было перевезено ок. 54% коммерческих грузов (по стоимости), обеспечено 70% товарообмена с США. На железные дороги приходилось ок. 20% грузоперевозок, на трубопроводы — менее 20%, на водный транспорт — ок. 5%.
К. — в числе стран, занимающих передовые позиции по производству телекоммуникационного оборудования и уровню развития услуг в сфере связи и информации. В 2003 они обеспечили 4,9% ВВП. К сети Интернет подключены все учебные заведения, библиотеки и удалённые населённые пункты.
Финансовые и страховые услуги, а также услуги в сфере операций с недвижимостью обеспечили в 2003 ок. 20% ВВП (6% всех занятых). В финансовой системе доминирует «большая пятёрка» крупнейших коммерческих банков, на них приходится 83% оборота всех компаний отрасли, им же принадлежат крупнейшие инвестиционные банки.
Бухгалтерско-аудиторские, информационно-консультативные, инженерно-технические, компьютерные, юридические и пр. услуги быстро развиваются. В 2003 на них приходилось 4,7% ВВП и 6,5% занятых.
Внешнеэкономические связи всегда играли важную роль в экономическом развитии К., и со временем страна становилась всё более открытой для внешней торговли и инвестиций. С 1994 во всех провинциях К. экспорт товаров и услуг превосходит их поставки другим субъектам федерации. В 1999—2003 международные эксперты включали К. в число стран с наиболее «открытым» и благоприятным инвестиционным климатом.
В 2002 экспорт товаров составил 414,3 млрд канадских долл., что ниже рекордного уровня 2000 — 430,1 млрд. В США направлялось почти 85% товарного экспорта, в Японию — 2,4%, в Великобританию — 1,4%, в другие страны ЕС — 3,7%, во все остальные страны — 7,7%. Товарный импорт в 2002 356,5 млрд канадских долл. по сравнению с 363,4 млрд в 2000. Из США поступило ок. 72% товаров, из Японии — 3,6%, из Великобритании — 2,9%, из других стран ЕС — 7,3%, из всех остальных стран — 14,7%. Баланс торговли товарами с США традиционно положителен, в 2002 он достиг 93,7 млрд долл. Однако в торговле почти со всеми остальными партнёрами импорт в К. превышает её экспортные поставки. Суммарное положительное сальдо торгового баланса составило в 2002 57,8 млрд канадских долл.
За 1980—2002 произошли позитивные сдвиги в структуре канадского экспорта. Доля машин и оборудования возросла с 28,2 до 46,9%, а доля промышленного сырья, полуфабрикатов и энергоносителей упала с 60,3 до 35,2%. Вместе с тем доля машин и оборудования в современном импорте К. составляет 52,5%, а прочих потребительских товаров — 13,0%. В целом по этим двум группам товаров, производимых отраслями обрабатывающей промышленности, К. остаётся крупным нетто-импортёром, тогда как положительное сальдо во внешней торговле обеспечивается масштабным экспортом энергоносителей, продукции лесопромышленного комплекса, металлов и сплавов. Экспорт нефти, природного газа и электроэнергии (главным образом в США) возрос с 23,8 млрд долл. в 1998 до 49,5 млрд в 2002.
Начиная с 1995 отток прямых инвестиций из К. стал превосходить приток. В 2001 их накопленный объём за рубежом достиг 268,6 млрд долл. США (из них 53% в США). Иностранные прямые инвестиции в К. составили 221,1 млрд долл. США, из них 70% — из США.
Экономическая политика рыночной либерализации ведёт к радикальным переменам в системе государственного регулирования. В результате приватизации и дерегулирования изменились масштабы и методы участия государства в хозяйственной жизни. Резко сократились государственные расходы на поддержку инфраструктуры транспорта, связи, сельского хозяйства и некоторых обрабатывающих производств. Однако после вступления в «эру бюджетных профицитов» правительство вновь увеличивает ассигнования на развитие научно-технического потенциала, образования и здравоохранения. Вместе с тем в 2000—04 осуществляются меры по ослаблению налоговой нагрузки на население и бизнес.
Доля государственных расходов по отношению к ВВП упала с 55% в 1992 до 43,1% в 2002 (федеральные — с 19,7 до 15,7% ВВП).
В 1998—2003 федеральное правительство получало крупные профициты. В 2000 суммарный профицит всех уровней власти — 3,2% ВВП.
В 2003—04 сумма федеральных доходов составила 188 млрд канадских долл., расходов — 178 млрд. Размер федерального долга 507,7 млрд долл. (ок. 42% ВВП).
Сложившаяся в 20 в. система социальной организации общества ближе к западноевропейской модели, нежели к американской. Программы в сфере образования, здравоохранения, социального вспомоществования осуществляются главным образом за счёт государства и силами государственных служб, на базе государственных учебных заведений и медицинских учреждений. Вместе с тем современный уровень социальной защиты населения уступает стандартам, действующим в странах Западной Европы.
Социальная сфера развивается на базе фискального федерализма: крупные федеральные трансферты обеспечивают регионам сравнимый подушевой уровень расходов на социальные нужды. Трансферты передаются при условии соблюдения некоторых обязательных принципов и общих стандартов. Вместе с тем в регионах существует большое разнообразие конкретных форм и механизмов осуществления социальной политики.
На рубеже веков возникла необходимость более тесной увязки социальных и экономических компонентов государственной политики. В результате изменились подходы к организации и финансированию многих программ, усилилась децентрализация.
В 2002 доля расходов на образование, здравоохранение, социальное обеспечение составляла 23,5% ВВП К. Этот показатель был выше, чем в США, Японии и Великобритании, но ниже, чем в Германии, Франции, Италии и странах Северной Европы.
Система образования в К. признана одной из лучших в мире. На эти цели в 2001 было израсходовано 68,3 млрд долл., или ок. 6,9% ВВП. Обучение в школе обязательно с 5—7 лет, полный курс длится 11—12 лет, в бесплатных общественных школах учатся 94,5% детей. С кон. 1960-х и до сер. 1990-х гг. образование в университетах, колледжах и на курсах профессионально-технического обучения финансировалось главным образом за счёт государства, послешкольное образование стало широкодоступным и массовым. В 1990-х гг. плата за обучение в вузах быстро росла. Тем не менее за счёт этого источника, а также спонсорских поступлений в 2001 покрывалось 29% текущих расходов университетов и колледжей, а 71% средств поступал из федеральных и региональных бюджетов. Обучение в вузах обходится гражданам К. и иностранцам намного дешевле, чем в американских вузах. Сильная сторона канадских вузов — тесная связь науки, образования и практики.
Уровень образования канадцев существенно повысился менее чем за два десятилетия. Доля граждан 15 лет и старше, имеющих дипломы об окончании колледжей, в 2001 составила 14,9% (в 1986 — 10,3%), незаконченное и полное университетское образование имеют 18% (в 1986 — 11,6%). Степень магистра или доктора наук имеют ок. 900 тыс. чел. (434 тыс. в 1986).
Здравоохранение построено на принципах всеобщего медицинского страхования, что определяет основные отличия канадской модели социальной политики от американской. Жителям страны гарантировано бесплатное предоставление широкого спектра медицинских услуг. Все провинции получают от федерального правительства целевые трансферты при соблюдении основных положений федерального Закона о здравоохранении. Он запрещает частным медицинским учреждениям предоставлять услуги, гарантируемые государственным страхованием, а государственные учреждения не имеют права взимать за такие услуги плату.
В 2001 совокупные расходы на медицинское обслуживание составили 102,5 млрд долл. (примерно 10% ВВП). 68% финансовых ресурсов поступило из бюджетных источников, остальное — из частных, прежде всего от населения.
Государственные расходы на социальное обеспечение в 2001 — ок. 101 млрд долл. В ведении федеральных властей — пенсионная система и страхование по безработице. Провинции отвечают за помощь малообеспеченным трудоспособным гражданам. Поддержка семей с детьми — сфера совместного ведения.
Пенсии по возрасту выплачиваются гражданам 65 лет и старше, они включаются в налогооблагаемый доход и поэтому изымаются у состоятельных престарелых граждан. Пенсии по труду выплачиваются гражданам по достижении 60 лет, размер зависит от накопленных страховых взносов и составляет примерно 25% средних заработков работника за весь период трудовой деятельности. Ок. 43% работающих канадцев осуществляют накопления в частных пенсионных фондах и на специальных сберегательных счетах, что поощряется налоговыми льготами.
Предоставление пособий безработным зависит от их усилий по трудоустройству и приобретению профессиональных знаний и навыков. Пособия возмещают 55% среднего заработка за период, предшествовавший увольнению, но не более 400 канадских долл. в неделю и не дольше 45 недель.
Максимальный размер федеральных пособий на детей в 2002 составил 2500 долл. в год, величина выплат меняется по убывающей при доходах св. 21,5 тыс. долл. в год. Размер дополнительных выплат из бюджетов провинций существенно различается.
В кон. 20 в. позиции К. в группе «самых богатых» стран мира несколько ослабли. В 1990 К. по показателям ВВП в расчёте на душу населения занимала 3-е, к 2002 переместилась на 4-е место, поскольку реальные доходы после уплаты налогов в 1990—97 уменьшались (в расчёте на душу населения). Разрыв по среднему уровню текущих денежных доходов между К. и США составил в 2002 ок. 22%. В то же время разница в среднем уровне жизни между двумя странами не столь велика, поскольку государство в К. предоставляет гражданам гораздо больше бесплатных и субсидируемых услуг. В самой К. прогрессивная система налогов и совокупность социальных программ сглаживают дифференциацию в доходах между наиболее и наименее обеспеченными гражданами. По данным на 1999, средние «рыночные» доходы (до уплаты налогов и перевода трансфертов от государства) в группе 20% самых богатых граждан превосходили средние доходы в группе самых малообеспеченных в 27 раз. После изъятия налогов и выплаты пенсий и пособий разница сократилась до 8,5 раза. Контрасты в распределении доходов ещё более сглаживаются за счёт предоставления бесплатных и субсидируемых услуг.
В 2002 доходы среднестатистической канадской семьи (2 чел. и более) составляли 69,4 тыс. канадских долл. до уплаты налогов и обязательных сборов и более 36,5 тыс. долл. после их уплаты. В канадской статистике отсутствует показатель «черта бедности», так как считается, что социальная политика не допускает возникновения реальной нищеты. При этом ежегодно определяются показатели «границы низких доходов». В 2002 к категории низких были отнесены чистые доходы ок. 15 тыс. долл. в год на человека, проживающего в большом городе без семьи, и ок. 30 тыс. долл. в год для семьи из 4 чел.
Наука и культура
Высокая степень общеэкономической зависимости от США определяет специфические черты действующей в К. системы «наука—техника—производство». Контролируемые иностранным капиталом филиалы ТНК, как правило, не занимаются крупными самостоятельными проектами НИОКР и осуществляют главным образом вспомогательные работы по внедрению в производство технологий, полученных от материнских компаний. Многие же промышленные фирмы, контролируемые национальным капиталом, не имеют достаточных организационно-финансовых ресурсов для ведения масштабных НИОКР, необходимых для создания и внедрения в производство принципиально новых продуктов и технологий. В результате сфера промышленных НИОКР до сих пор остаётся слабым звеном в национальном научно-техническом комплексе. Это определяет и относительное отставание К. от других ведущих стран по общему уровню затрат на научно-техническую деятельность. В 2000 доля таких затрат в ВВП составила в К. 1,8% (средний показатель по странам — членам ОЭСР — 2,2%). При этом государство в К. обеспечивает более 51% всех прямых расходов на науку и внедренческую деятельность и, по данным сравнительных исследований, предоставляет большие налоговые льготы компаниям, ведущим НИОКР.
Примечательно, что К. занимает передовые рубежи в целом ряде областей фундаментальных и прикладных исследований, в которых ведущую роль играют университеты и федеральные научные центры. В числе таких областей атомная энергетика, использование других традиционных и нетрадиционных источников энергии; генетика и селекция; технологии в горнодобывающей промышленности и в отраслях лесопромышленного комплекса, в сфере транспорта и телекоммуникаций; медицина и фармацевтика; биотехнологии; контроль над состоянием окружающей среды и меры по её защите от загрязнения; освоение богатств Мирового океана. Государство в К. не осуществляет крупных затрат на НИОКР военного назначения, а сами военные производства не составляют здесь большой доли в экономике.
В 2002 с участием представителей федеральных и провинциальных властей, предпринимательских организаций, вузов и некоммерческих исследовательских центров обсуждался т. н. План действий в сфере инноваций, финансовые параметры которого были впоследствии закреплены в экономической программе федерального правительства. К 2010 намечено добиться, чтобы К. вошла в «пятёрку лидеров» по показателям развития НИОКР; как минимум удвоить федеральные ассигнования на НИОКР; занять передовые позиции по доле качественно новых товаров и услуг в общей сумме продаж частных компаний. В федеральной бюджетной программе на 2003—04 закреплены обязательства правительства в течение 5 лет увеличить ассигнования на НИОКР в государственных научных институтах и университетских центрах, усилить поддержку НИОКР и инновационной активности в предпринимательском секторе.
Канадскую концепцию многокультурности можно охарактеризовать как балансирование между коллективными и индивидуальными правами. Традиционно большее, чем в США, признание «коллективных прав» тех или иных групп (аборигенных, этнокультурных меньшинств) обеспечивает позитивное отличие канадского общества. Ассимиляции, с одной стороны, и социально-культурной изоляции этнических групп, с другой, канадская концепция многокультурности противопоставляет возможность интеграции различных групп, сохраняющих своё особое этнокультурное лицо, в единое самобытное (в своём многообразии) общеканадское общество. Это прежде всего относится к «народам — основателям К.» — франкоканадцам и англоканадцам. Оба этих народа создали свою особую культуру — литературу, драматургию, фольклор и современную музыку, национальные школы живописи, собственное мировосприятие и стиль жизни, особенности французского и английского языка, отличающие их от других англо- и франкоязычных наций современного мира.
Самобытна культура франкоканадцев — народа, который сложился за более чем 300 лет обособленного развития в специфической североамериканской природной среде и более двух веков политической, экономической, а во многом и культурной изоляции от Франции. За полтора века французской колонизации (1608 — 1763) в К. осело всего лишь 10 тыс. переселенцев (из них всего 1100 женщин, так что значительная часть первопоселенцев вступала в браки с индейскими женщинами). После завоевания К. Великобританией (1763) их потомки, насчитывавшие к тому времени 70 тыс. чел., уже считали себя канадцами, а французская иммиграция в К. практически прекратилась. В состав франкоязычного населения влилась также часть осевших здесь британских солдат из числа шотландских горцев-католиков, а также ирландцев, ассимилировавшихся с франкоканадцами на почве религиозной общности. Большинство франкоканадцев в быту пользуется местным вариантом французского языка, сложившимся на базе старинного северофранцузского наречия, со многими архаизмами, англицизмами и заимствованиями из индейских языков, а также возникшими уже здесь «канадизмами». Этот язык, получивший прозвище «жуаль», проник в художественную литературу, особенно в поэзию, а драматургию и кинематограф подчинил себе настолько, что квебекские фильмы нередко идут во Франции с субтитрами.
Музыкальный фольклор франкоканадцев в значительной части отличается от французского: танцевальные мелодии («рили») отчётливо выказывают своё шотландское происхождение. Высоко ценится творчество современных франкоканадских шансонье. Франкоканадскими авторами сложены и музыка и оригинальный текст общеканадского гимна («О, Канада!»); во «французской» К. зародилась и общеканадская символика — изображение кленового листа на гербе и флаге страны.
Присутствие франкоканадского культурного элемента в стране ощущается повсеместно, и, по мнению многих культурологов, именно он является главнейшим фактором канадской самобытности, резко отличающим канадское общество от американского.
Другой «народ-основатель» — англоканадцы — возник на полтора столетия позже, чем франкоканадцы, и складывался в совершенно иных политико-демографических условиях — постепенно, в постоянном контакте и при демографической «подпитке» со стороны исторической родины — Великобритании и англоязычного соседа — США. Между тем его основу в кон. 18 в. заложили т. н. «лоялисты» — переселенцы из США, которые «не пожелали стать американцами» и во время войны за независимость США поддерживали британскую армию, а после её поражения бежали на ещё не заселённые франкоканадцами земли в оставшейся за Британской империей К. Позднее к ним прибавились новые переселенцы из Европы, но сохранился «лоялистский» дух законопослушности, консерватизма, приверженности к британской культуре и независимости от США.
По своей фонетике, лексике и орфографии канадский вариант английского языка занимает промежуточное положение между британским и американским.
Заметно отличаются от американских гораздо менее коммерциализированная и по-европейски более сдержанная англоканадская литература, кинематограф (впрочем, здесь первенство принадлежит скорее Квебеку, где создано несколько киношедевров мирового уровня) и своеобразная национальная школа живописи, ведущая начало от знаменитой «Группы семи» — несомненного вклада англоканадцев в мировое искусство. В народной музыке «английской» К. (особенно в её восточной части), как, впрочем, и в других жанрах искусства, и даже во многих чертах национального характера англоканадцев, отчётливо видно влияние шотландского элемента: доля шотландцев среди выходцев с Британских островов в К. выше, чем в США (тогда как доля ирландцев — несколько ниже). Особенно заметна шотландская составляющая в местной культуре в Новой Шотландии, а также в Манитобе, культуре других Степных и Атлантических провинций и среди англоканадцев Квебека.
Особую озабоченность канадцев вызывает культурная экспансия США. Страна затоплена американской беллетристикой, журнальной, кинематографической продукцией, радио- и телепередачами. Остро встал вопрос о национальной самобытности канадцев, которые не хотят превращаться в жителей провинции американской культуры. Между тем многоэтнические канадцы располагают собственной яркой и самобытной музыкальной культурой, развитым фольклором, литературой и прессой на 60 языках, собственными школами живописи, развитым балетом и другими жанрами театрального искусства, кинематографией. Федеральное правительство К., как и власти многих провинций, принимают меры, направленные на защиту и развитие национальной культуры народов и этнических групп, населяющих К.
Авторы статьи:
Л.А. Немова, А.И. Черкасов
Энциклопедия стран мира. — М.: НПО «Экономика», РАН, отделение общественных наук.
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2004.