Как правильно пишется лагерь освенцим

Auschwitz Konzentrationslager Auschwitz (German)
Nazi concentration and extermination camp (1940–1945)
Top: Gate to Auschwitz I with its Arbeit macht frei sign («work sets you free») Bottom: Auschwitz II-Birkenau gatehouse; the train track, in operation May–October 1944, led directly to the gas chambers.[1]
Coordinates	50°02′09″N 19°10′42″E / 50.03583°N 19.17833°ECoordinates: 50°02′09″N 19°10′42″E / 50.03583°N 19.17833°E
Known for	The Holocaust
Location	German-occupied Poland
Built by	IG Farben
Operated by	Nazi Germany and the Schutzstaffel
Commandant	See list
Original use	Army barracks
Operational	May 1940 – January 1945
Inmates	Mainly Jews, Poles, Romani, Soviet prisoners of war
Number of inmates	At least 1.3 million[2]
Killed	At least 1.1 million[2]
Liberated by	Soviet Union, 27 January 1945
Notable inmates	Auschwitz prisoners: Adolf Burger, Edith Eger, Anne Frank, Viktor Frankl, Imre Kertész, Maximilian Kolbe, Primo Levi, Fritz Löhner-Beda, Irène Némirovsky, Tadeusz Pietrzykowski, Witold Pilecki, Liliana Segre, Edith Stein, Simone Veil, Rudolf Vrba, Alfréd Wetzler, Elie Wiesel, Else Ury, Eddie Jaku, Władysław Bartoszewski
Notable books	Man’s Search for Meaning (1946) If This Is a Man (1947) Night (1960) Maus (1980–1991)
Website	auschwitz.org/en/
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Auschwitz Birkenau, German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940–1945)
Type	Cultural
Criteria	vi
Designated	1979 (3rd session)
Reference no.	31
Region	Europe and North America

Auschwitz concentration camp (German: Konzentrationslager Auschwitz (pronounced [kɔntsɛntʁaˈtsi̯oːnsˌlaːɡɐ ˈʔaʊʃvɪts] (listen)); also KL Auschwitz or KZ Auschwitz) was a complex of over 40 concentration and extermination camps operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland (in a portion annexed into Germany in 1939)^[3] during World War II and the Holocaust. It consisted of Auschwitz I, the main camp (Stammlager) in Oświęcim; Auschwitz II-Birkenau, a concentration and extermination camp with gas chambers; Auschwitz III-Monowitz, a labor camp for the chemical conglomerate IG Farben; and dozens of subcamps.^[4] The camps became a major site of the Nazis’ final solution to the Jewish question.

After Germany sparked World War II by invading Poland in September 1939, the Schutzstaffel (SS) converted Auschwitz I, an army barracks, into a prisoner-of-war camp.^[5]

The initial transport of political detainees to Auschwitz consisted almost solely of Poles for whom the camp was initially established. The bulk of inmates were Polish for the first two years.^[6]

In May 1940, German criminals brought to the camp as functionaries, established the camp’s reputation for sadism. Prisoners were beaten, tortured, and executed for the most trivial reasons. The first gassings—of Soviet and Polish prisoners—took place in block 11 of Auschwitz I around August 1941. Construction of Auschwitz II began the following month, and from 1942 until late 1944 freight trains delivered Jews from all over German-occupied Europe to its gas chambers. Of the 1.3 million people sent to Auschwitz, 1.1 million were murdered. The number of victims includes 960,000 Jews (865,000 of whom were gassed on arrival), 74,000 ethnic Poles, 21,000 Roma, 15,000 Soviet prisoners of war, and up to 15,000 other Europeans.^[7] Those not gassed were murdered via starvation, exhaustion, disease, individual executions, or beatings. Others were killed during medical experiments.

At least 802 prisoners tried to escape, 144 successfully, and on 7 October 1944, two Sonderkommando units, consisting of prisoners who operated the gas chambers, launched an unsuccessful uprising. Only 789 Schutzstaffel personnel (no more than 15 percent) ever stood trial after the Holocaust ended;^[8] several were executed, including camp commandant Rudolf Höss. The Allies’ failure to act on early reports of atrocities by bombing the camp or its railways remains controversial.

As the Soviet Red Army approached Auschwitz in January 1945, toward the end of the war, the SS sent most of the camp’s population west on a death march to camps inside Germany and Austria. Soviet troops entered the camp on 27 January 1945, a day commemorated since 2005 as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. In the decades after the war, survivors such as Primo Levi, Viktor Frankl, and Elie Wiesel wrote memoirs of their experiences, and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust. In 1947, Poland founded the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II, and in 1979 it was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Background

The ideology of National Socialism (Nazism) combined elements of «racial hygiene», eugenics, antisemitism, pan-Germanism, and territorial expansionism, Richard J. Evans writes.^[9] Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party became obsessed by the «Jewish question».^[10] Both during and immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany in 1933, acts of violence against German Jews became ubiquitous,^[11] and legislation was passed excluding them from certain professions, including the civil service and the law.^[a]

Harassment and economic pressure encouraged Jews to leave Germany; their businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden from advertising in newspapers, and deprived of government contracts.^[13] On 15 September 1935, the Reichstag passed the Nuremberg Laws. One, the Reich Citizenship Law, defined as citizens those of «German or related blood who demonstrate by their behaviour that they are willing and suitable to serve the German People and Reich faithfully», and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor prohibited marriage and extramarital relations between those with «German or related blood» and Jews.^[14]

When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering World War II, Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia be destroyed.^[15] The area around Auschwitz was annexed to the German Reich, as part of first Gau Silesia and from 1941 Gau Upper Silesia.^[16] The camp at Auschwitz was established in April 1940, at first as a quarantine camp for Polish political prisoners. On 22 June 1941, in an attempt to obtain new territory, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union.^[17] The first gassing at Auschwitz—of a group of Soviet prisoners of war—took place around August 1941.^[18] By the end of that year, during what most historians regard as the first phase of the Holocaust, 500,000–800,000 Soviet Jews had been murdered in mass shootings by a combination of German Einsatzgruppen, ordinary German soldiers, and local collaborators.^[19] At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin on 20 January 1942, Reinhard Heydrich outlined the Final Solution to the Jewish Question to senior Nazis,^[20] and from early 1942 freight trains delivered Jews from all over occupied Europe to German extermination camps in Poland: Auschwitz, Bełżec, Chełmno, Majdanek, Sobibór, and Treblinka. Most prisoners were gassed on arrival.^[21]

Camps

Auschwitz I

Growth

A former World War I camp for transient workers and later a Polish army barracks, Auschwitz I was the main camp (Stammlager) and administrative headquarters of the camp complex. Fifty km southwest of Kraków, the site was first suggested in February 1940 as a quarantine camp for Polish prisoners by Arpad Wigand, the inspector of the Sicherheitspolizei (security police) and deputy of Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, the Higher SS and Police Leader for Silesia. Richard Glücks, head of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate, sent Walter Eisfeld, former commandant of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in Oranienburg, Germany, to inspect it.^[23] Around 1,000 m long and 400 m wide,^[24] Auschwitz consisted at the time of 22 brick buildings, eight of them two-story. A second story was added to the others in 1943 and eight new blocks were built.^[25]

Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, approved the site in April 1940 on the recommendation of SS-Obersturmbannführer Rudolf Höss of the camps inspectorate. Höss oversaw the development of the camp and served as its first commandant. The first 30 prisoners arrived on 20 May 1940 from the Sachsenhausen camp. German «career criminals» (Berufsverbrecher), the men were known as «greens» (Grünen) after the green triangles on their prison clothing. Brought to the camp as functionaries, this group did much to establish the sadism of early camp life, which was directed particularly at Polish inmates, until the political prisoners took over their roles.^[26] Bruno Brodniewicz, the first prisoner (who was given serial number 1), became Lagerälteste (camp elder). The others were given positions such as kapo and block supervisor.^[27]

First mass transport

The first mass transport—of 728 Polish male political prisoners, including Catholic priests and Jews—arrived on 14 June 1940 from Tarnów, Poland. They were given serial numbers 31 to 758.^[b] In a letter on 12 July 1940, Höss told Glücks that the local population was «fanatically Polish, ready to undertake any sort of operation against the hated SS men».^[29] By the end of 1940, the SS had confiscated land around the camp to create a 40-square-kilometer (15 sq mi) «zone of interest» (Interessengebiet) patrolled by the SS, Gestapo and local police.^[30] By March 1941, 10,900 were imprisoned in the camp, most of them Poles.^[24]

An inmate’s first encounter with Auschwitz, if they were registered and not sent straight to the gas chamber, was at the prisoner reception center near the gate with the Arbeit macht frei sign, where they were tattooed, shaved, disinfected, and given a striped prison uniform. Built between 1942 and 1944, the center contained a bathhouse, laundry, and 19 gas chambers for delousing clothes. The prisoner reception center of Auschwitz I became the visitor reception center of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.^[22]

Crematorium I, first gassings

Further information: § Gas chambers

Construction of crematorium I began at Auschwitz I at the end of June or beginning of July 1940.^[32] Initially intended not for mass murder but for prisoners who had been executed or had otherwise died in the camp, the crematorium was in operation from August 1940 until July 1943, by which time the crematoria at Auschwitz II had taken over.^[33] By May 1942 three ovens had been installed in crematorium I, which together could burn 340 bodies in 24 hours.^[34]

The first experimental gassing took place around August 1941, when Lagerführer Karl Fritzsch, at the instruction of Rudolf Höss, murdered a group of Soviet prisoners of war by throwing Zyklon B crystals into their basement cell in block 11 of Auschwitz I. A second group of 600 Soviet prisoners of war and around 250 sick Polish prisoners were gassed on 3–5 September.^[35] The morgue was later converted to a gas chamber able to hold at least 700–800 people.^[34][c] Zyklon B was dropped into the room through slits in the ceiling.^[34]

First mass transport of Jews

Historians have disagreed about the date the all-Jewish transports began arriving in Auschwitz. At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin on 20 January 1942, the Nazi leadership outlined, in euphemistic language, its plans for the Final Solution.^[36] According to Franciszek Piper, the Auschwitz commandant Rudolf Höss offered inconsistent accounts after the war, suggesting the extermination began in December 1941, January 1942, or before the establishment of the women’s camp in March 1942.^[37] In Kommandant in Auschwitz, he wrote: «In the spring of 1942 the first transports of Jews, all earmarked for extermination, arrived from Upper Silesia.»^[38] On 15 February 1942, according to Danuta Czech, a transport of Jews from Beuthen, Upper Silesia (Bytom, Poland), arrived at Auschwitz I and was sent straight to the gas chamber.^[d][40] In 1998 an eyewitness said the train contained «the women of Beuthen».^[e] Saul Friedländer wrote that the Beuthen Jews were from the Organization Schmelt labor camps and had been deemed unfit for work.^[42] According to Christopher Browning, transports of Jews unfit for work were sent to the gas chamber at Auschwitz from autumn 1941.^[43] The evidence for this and the February 1942 transport was contested in 2015 by Nikolaus Wachsmann.^[44]

Around 20 March 1942, according to Danuta Czech, a transport of Polish Jews from Silesia and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie was taken straight from the station to the Auschwitz II gas chamber, which had just come into operation.^[45] On 26 and 28 March, two transports of Slovakian Jews were registered as prisoners in the women’s camp, where they were kept for slave labour; these were the first transports organized by Adolf Eichmann’s department IV B4 (the Jewish office) in the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA).^[f] On 30 March the first RHSA transport arrived from France.^[46] «Selection», where new arrivals were chosen for work or the gas chamber, began in April 1942 and was conducted regularly from July. Piper writes that this reflected Germany’s increasing need for labor. Those selected as unfit for work were gassed without being registered as prisoners.^[47]

There is also disagreement about how many were gassed in Auschwitz I. Perry Broad, an SS-Unterscharführer, wrote that «transport after transport vanished in the Auschwitz [I] crematorium.»^[48] In the view of Filip Müller, one of the Auschwitz I Sonderkommando, tens of thousands of Jews were murdered there from France, Holland, Slovakia, Upper Silesia, and Yugoslavia, and from the Theresienstadt, Ciechanow, and Grodno ghettos.^[49] Against this, Jean-Claude Pressac estimated that up to 10,000 people had been murdered in Auschwitz I.^[48] The last inmates gassed there, in December 1942, were around 400 members of the Auschwitz II Sonderkommando, who had been forced to dig up and burn the remains of that camp’s mass graves, thought to hold over 100,000 corpses.^[50]

Auschwitz II-Birkenau

Construction

After visiting Auschwitz I in March 1941, it appears that Himmler ordered that the camp be expanded,^[51] although Peter Hayes notes that, on 10 January 1941, the Polish underground told the Polish government-in-exile in London: «the Auschwitz concentration camp …can accommodate approximately 7,000 prisoners at present, and is to be rebuilt to hold approximately 30,000.»^[52] Construction of Auschwitz II-Birkenau—called a Kriegsgefangenenlager (prisoner-of-war camp) on blueprints—began in October 1941 in Brzezinka, about three kilometers from Auschwitz I.^[53] The initial plan was that Auschwitz II would consist of four sectors (Bauabschnitte I–IV), each consisting of six subcamps (BIIa–BIIf) with their own gates and fences. The first two sectors were completed (sector BI was initially a quarantine camp), but the construction of BIII began in 1943 and stopped in April 1944, and the plan for BIV was abandoned.^[54]

SS-Sturmbannführer Karl Bischoff, an architect, was the chief of construction.^[51] Based on an initial budget of RM 8.9 million, his plans called for each barracks to hold 550 prisoners, but he later changed this to 744 per barracks, which meant the camp could hold 125,000, rather than 97,000.^[55] There were 174 barracks, each measuring 35.4 by 11.0 m (116 by 36 ft), divided into 62 bays of 4 m² (43 sq ft). The bays were divided into «roosts», initially for three inmates and later for four. With personal space of 1 m² (11 sq ft) to sleep and place whatever belongings they had, inmates were deprived, Robert-Jan van Pelt wrote, «of the minimum space needed to exist».^[56]

The prisoners were forced to live in the barracks as they were building them; in addition to working, they faced long roll calls at night. As a result, most prisoners in BIb (the men’s camp) in the early months died of hypothermia, starvation or exhaustion within a few weeks.^[57] Some 10,000 Soviet prisoners of war arrived at Auschwitz I between 7 and 25 October 1941,^[58] but by 1 March 1942 only 945 were still registered; they were transferred to Auschwitz II,^[39] where most of them had died by May.^[59]

Crematoria II–V

Further information: § Gas chambers

The first gas chamber at Auschwitz II was operational by March 1942. On or around 20 March, a transport of Polish Jews sent by the Gestapo from Silesia and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie was taken straight from the Oświęcim freight station to the Auschwitz II gas chamber, then buried in a nearby meadow.^[45] The gas chamber was located in what prisoners called the «little red house» (known as bunker 1 by the SS), a brick cottage that had been turned into a gassing facility; the windows had been bricked up and its four rooms converted into two insulated rooms, the doors of which said «Zur Desinfektion» («to disinfection»). A second brick cottage, the «little white house» or bunker 2, was converted and operational by June 1942.^[60] When Himmler visited the camp on 17 and 18 July 1942, he was given a demonstration of a selection of Dutch Jews, a mass-murder in a gas chamber in bunker 2, and a tour of the building site of Auschwitz III, the new IG Farben plant being constructed at Monowitz.^[61] Use of bunkers I and 2 stopped in spring 1943 when the new crematoria were built, although bunker 2 became operational again in May 1944 for the murder of the Hungarian Jews. Bunker I was demolished in 1943 and bunker 2 in November 1944.^[62]

Plans for crematoria II and III show that both had an oven room 30 by 11.24 m (98.4 by 36.9 ft) on the ground floor, and an underground dressing room 49.43 by 7.93 m (162.2 by 26.0 ft) and gas chamber 30 by 7 m (98 by 23 ft). The dressing rooms had wooden benches along the walls and numbered pegs for clothing. Victims would be led from these rooms to a five-yard-long narrow corridor, which in turn led to a space from which the gas chamber door opened. The chambers were white inside, and nozzles were fixed to the ceiling to resemble showerheads.^[63] The daily capacity of the crematoria (how many bodies could be burned in a 24-hour period) was 340 corpses in crematorium I; 1,440 each in crematoria II and III; and 768 each in IV and V.^[64] By June 1943 all four crematoria were operational, but crematorium I was not used after July 1943. This made the total daily capacity 4,416, although by loading three to five corpses at a time, the Sonderkommando were able to burn some 8,000 bodies a day. This maximum capacity was rarely needed; the average between 1942 and 1944 was 1,000 bodies burned every day.^[65]

Auschwitz III-Monowitz

After examining several sites for a new plant to manufacture Buna-N, a type of synthetic rubber essential to the war effort, the German chemical conglomerate IG Farben chose a site near the towns of Dwory and Monowice (Monowitz in German), about 7 km (4.3 mi) east of Auschwitz I.^[66] Tax exemptions were available to corporations prepared to develop industries in the frontier regions under the Eastern Fiscal Assistance Law, passed in December 1940. In addition to its proximity to the concentration camp, a source of cheap labor, the site had good railway connections and access to raw materials.^[67] In February 1941, Himmler ordered that the Jewish population of Oświęcim be expelled to make way for skilled laborers; that all Poles able to work remain in the town and work on building the factory; and that Auschwitz prisoners be used in the construction work.^[68]

Auschwitz inmates began working at the plant, known as Buna Werke and IG-Auschwitz, in April 1941, demolishing houses in Monowitz to make way for it.^[69] By May, because of a shortage of trucks, several hundred of them were rising at 3 am to walk there twice a day from Auschwitz I.^[70] Because a long line of exhausted inmates walking through the town of Oświęcim might harm German-Polish relations, the inmates were told to shave daily, make sure they were clean, and sing as they walked. From late July they were taken to the factory by train on freight wagons.^[71] Given the difficulty of moving them, including during the winter, IG Farben decided to build a camp at the plant. The first inmates moved there on 30 October 1942.^[72] Known as KL Auschwitz III-Aussenlager (Auschwitz III subcamp), and later as the Monowitz concentration camp,^[73] it was the first concentration camp to be financed and built by private industry.^[74]

Measuring 270 m × 490 m (890 ft × 1,610 ft), the camp was larger than Auschwitz I. By the end of 1944, it housed 60 barracks measuring 17.5 m × 8 m (57 ft × 26 ft), each with a day room and a sleeping room containing 56 three-tiered wooden bunks.^[75] IG Farben paid the SS three or four Reichsmark for nine- to eleven-hour shifts from each worker.^[76] In 1943–1944, about 35,000 inmates worked at the plant; 23,000 (32 a day on average) were killed through malnutrition, disease, and the workload. Within three to four months at the camp, Peter Hayes writes, the inmates were «reduced to walking skeletons».^[77] Deaths and transfers to the gas chambers at Auschwitz II reduced the population by nearly a fifth each month.^[78] Site managers constantly threatened inmates with the gas chambers, and the smell from the crematoria at Auschwitz I and II hung heavy over the camp.^[79]

Although the factory had been expected to begin production in 1943, shortages of labor and raw materials meant start-up was postponed repeatedly.^[80] The Allies bombed the plant in 1944 on 20 August, 13 September, 18 December, and 26 December. On 19 January 1945, the SS ordered that the site be evacuated, sending 9,000 inmates, most of them Jews, on a death march to another Auschwitz subcamp at Gliwice.^[81] From Gliwice, prisoners were taken by rail in open freight wagons to the Buchenwald and Mauthausen concentration camps. The 800 inmates who had been left behind in the Monowitz hospital were liberated along with the rest of the camp on 27 January 1945 by the 1st Ukrainian Front of the Red Army.^[82]

Subcamps

Several other German industrial enterprises, such as Krupp and Siemens-Schuckert, built factories with their own subcamps.^[83] There were around 28 camps near industrial plants, each camp holding hundreds or thousands of prisoners.^[84] Designated as Aussenlager (external camp), Nebenlager (extension camp), Arbeitslager (labor camp), or Aussenkommando (external work detail),^[85] camps were built at Blechhammer, Jawiszowice, Jaworzno, Lagisze, Mysłowice, Trzebinia, and as far afield as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia in Czechoslovakia.^[86] Industries with satellite camps included coal mines, foundries and other metal works, and chemical plants. Prisoners were also made to work in forestry and farming.^[87] For example, Wirtschaftshof Budy, in the Polish village of Budy near Brzeszcze, was a farming subcamp where prisoners worked 12-hour days in the fields, tending animals, and making compost by mixing human ashes from the crematoria with sod and manure.^[88] Incidents of sabotage to decrease production took place in several subcamps, including Charlottengrube, Gleiwitz II, and Rajsko.^[89] Living conditions in some of the camps were so poor that they were regarded as punishment subcamps.^[90]

Life in the camps

SS garrison

Rudolf Höss, born in Baden-Baden in 1900,^[92] was named the first commandant of Auschwitz when Heinrich Himmler ordered on 27 April 1940 that the camp be established.^[93] Living with his wife and children in a two-story stucco house near the commandant’s and administration building,^[94] he served as commandant until 11 November 1943,^[93] with Josef Kramer as his deputy.^[24] Succeeded as commandant by Arthur Liebehenschel,^[93] Höss joined the SS Business and Administration Head Office in Oranienburg as director of Amt DI,^[93] a post that made him deputy of the camps inspectorate.^[95]

Richard Baer became commandant of Auschwitz I on 11 May 1944 and Fritz Hartjenstein of Auschwitz II from 22 November 1943, followed by Josef Kramer from 15 May 1944 until the camp’s liquidation in January 1945. Heinrich Schwarz was commandant of Auschwitz III from the point at which it became an autonomous camp in November 1943 until its liquidation.^[96] Höss returned to Auschwitz between 8 May and 29 July 1944 as the local SS garrison commander (Standortältester) to oversee the arrival of Hungary’s Jews, which made him the superior officer of all the commandants of the Auschwitz camps.^[93]

According to Aleksander Lasik, about 6,335 people (6,161 of them men) worked for the SS at Auschwitz over the course of the camp’s existence;^[97] 4.2 percent were officers, 26.1 percent non-commissioned officers, and 69.7 percent rank and file.^[98] In March 1941, there were 700 SS guards; in June 1942, 2,000; and in August 1944, 3,342. At its peak in January 1945, 4,480 SS men and 71 SS women worked in Auschwitz; the higher number is probably attributable to the logistics of evacuating the camp.^[99] Female guards were known as SS supervisors (SS-Aufseherinnen).^[100]

Most of the staff were from Germany or Austria, but as the war progressed, increasing numbers of Volksdeutsche from other countries, including Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Baltic states, joined the SS at Auschwitz. Not all were ethnically German. Guards were also recruited from Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia.^[101] Camp guards, around three quarters of the SS personnel, were members of the SS-Totenkopfverbände (death’s head units).^[102] Other SS staff worked in the medical or political departments, or in the economic administration, which was responsible for clothing and other supplies, including the property of dead prisoners.^[103] The SS viewed Auschwitz as a comfortable posting; being there meant they had avoided the front and had access to the victims’ property.^[104]

Functionaries and Sonderkommando

Certain prisoners, at first non-Jewish Germans but later Jews and non-Jewish Poles,^[105] were assigned positions of authority as Funktionshäftlinge (functionaries), which gave them access to better housing and food. The Lagerprominenz (camp elite) included Blockschreiber (barracks clerk), Kapo (overseer), Stubendienst (barracks orderly), and Kommandierte (trusties).^[106] Wielding tremendous power over other prisoners, the functionaries developed a reputation as sadists.^[105] Very few were prosecuted after the war, because of the difficulty of determining which atrocities had been performed by order of the SS.^[107]

Although the SS oversaw the murders at each gas chamber, the forced labor portion of the work was done by prisoners known from 1942 as the Sonderkommando (special squad).^[108] These were mostly Jews but they included groups such as Soviet POWs. In 1940–1941 when there was one gas chamber, there were 20 such prisoners, in late 1943 there were 400, and by 1944 during the Holocaust in Hungary the number had risen to 874.^[109] The Sonderkommando removed goods and corpses from the incoming trains, guided victims to the dressing rooms and gas chambers, removed their bodies afterwards, and took their jewelry, hair, dental work, and any precious metals from their teeth, all of which was sent to Germany. Once the bodies were stripped of anything valuable, the Sonderkommando burned them in the crematoria.^[110]

Because they were witnesses to the mass murder, the Sonderkommando lived separately from the other prisoners, although this rule was not applied to the non-Jews among them.^[111] Their quality of life was further improved by their access to the property of new arrivals, which they traded within the camp, including with the SS.^[112] Nevertheless, their life expectancy was short; they were regularly murdered and replaced.^[113] About 100 survived to the camp’s liquidation. They were forced on a death march and by train to the camp at Mauthausen, where three days later they were asked to step forward during roll call. No one did, and because the SS did not have their records, several of them survived.^[114]

Tattoos and triangles

Uniquely at Auschwitz, prisoners were tattooed with a serial number, on their left breast for Soviet prisoners of war^[115] and on the left arm for civilians.^[116][117] Categories of prisoner were distinguishable by triangular pieces of cloth (German: Winkel) sewn onto on their jackets below their prisoner number. Political prisoners (Schutzhäftlinge or Sch), mostly Poles, had a red triangle, while criminals (Berufsverbrecher or BV) were mostly German and wore green. Asocial prisoners (Asoziale or Aso), which included vagrants, prostitutes and the Roma, wore black. Purple was for Jehovah’s Witnesses (Internationale Bibelforscher-Vereinigung or IBV)’s and pink for gay men, who were mostly German.^[118] An estimated 5,000–15,000 gay men prosecuted under German Penal Code Section 175 (proscribing sexual acts between men) were detained in concentration camps, of whom an unknown number were sent to Auschwitz.^[119] Jews wore a yellow badge, the shape of the Star of David, overlaid by a second triangle if they also belonged to a second category. The nationality of the inmate was indicated by a letter stitched onto the cloth. A racial hierarchy existed, with German prisoners at the top. Next were non-Jewish prisoners from other countries. Jewish prisoners were at the bottom.^[120]

Transports

Deportees were brought to Auschwitz crammed in wretched conditions into goods or cattle wagons, arriving near a railway station or at one of several dedicated trackside ramps, including one next to Auschwitz I. The Altejudenrampe (old Jewish ramp), part of the Oświęcim freight railway station, was used from 1942 to 1944 for Jewish transports.^[121][122] Located between Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II, arriving at this ramp meant a 2.5 km journey to Auschwitz II and the gas chambers. Most deportees were forced to walk, accompanied by SS men and a car with a Red Cross symbol that carried the Zyklon B, as well as an SS doctor in case officers were poisoned by mistake. Inmates arriving at night, or who were too weak to walk, were taken by truck.^[123] Work on a new railway line and ramp (right) between sectors BI and BII in Auschwitz II, was completed in May 1944 for the arrival of Hungarian Jews^[122] between May and early July 1944.^[124] The rails led directly to the area around the gas chambers.^[121]

Life for the inmates

The day began at 4:30 am for the men (an hour later in winter), and earlier for the women, when the block supervisor sounded a gong and started beating inmates with sticks to make them wash and use the latrines quickly.^[125] Sanitary arrangements were atrocious, with few latrines and a lack of clean water. Each washhouse had to service thousands of prisoners. In sectors BIa and BIb in Auschwitz II, two buildings containing latrines and washrooms were installed in 1943. These contained troughs for washing and 90 faucets; the toilet facilities were «sewage channels» covered by concrete with 58 holes for seating. There were three barracks with washing facilities or toilets to serve 16 residential barracks in BIIa, and six washrooms/latrines for 32 barracks in BIIb, BIIc, BIId, and BIIe.^[126] Primo Levi described a 1944 Auschwitz III washroom:

It is badly lighted, full of draughts, with the brick floor covered by a layer of mud. The water is not drinkable; it has a revolting smell and often fails for many hours. The walls are covered by curious didactic frescoes: for example, there is the good Häftling [prisoner], portrayed stripped to the waist, about to diligently soap his sheared and rosy cranium, and the bad Häftling, with a strong Semitic nose and a greenish colour, bundled up in his ostentatiously stained clothes with a beret on his head, who cautiously dips a finger into the water of the washbasin. Under the first is written: «So bist du rein» (like this you are clean), and under the second, «So gehst du ein» (like this you come to a bad end); and lower down, in doubtful French but in Gothic script: «La propreté, c’est la santé» [cleanliness is health].^[127]

Prisoners received half a liter of coffee substitute or a herbal tea in the morning, but no food.^[128] A second gong heralded roll call, when inmates lined up outside in rows of ten to be counted. No matter the weather, they had to wait for the SS to arrive for the count; how long they stood there depended on the officers’ mood, and whether there had been escapes or other events attracting punishment.^[129] Guards might force the prisoners to squat for an hour with their hands above their heads or hand out beatings or detention for infractions such as having a missing button or an improperly cleaned food bowl. The inmates were counted and re-counted.^[130]

After roll call, to the sound of «Arbeitskommandos formieren» («form work details»), prisoners walked to their place of work, five abreast, to begin a working day that was normally 11 hours long—longer in summer and shorter in winter.^[132] A prison orchestra, such as the Women’s Orchestra of Auschwitz, was forced to play cheerful music as the workers left the camp. Kapos were responsible for the prisoners’ behavior while they worked, as was an SS escort. Much of the work took place outdoors at construction sites, gravel pits, and lumber yards. No rest periods were allowed. One prisoner was assigned to the latrines to measure the time the workers took to empty their bladders and bowels.^[133]

Lunch was three-quarters of a liter of watery soup at midday, reportedly foul-tasting, with meat in the soup four times a week and vegetables (mostly potatoes and rutabaga) three times. The evening meal was 300 grams of bread, often moldy, part of which the inmates were expected to keep for breakfast the next day, with a tablespoon of cheese or marmalade, or 25 grams of margarine or sausage. Prisoners engaged in hard labor were given extra rations.^[134]

A second roll call took place at seven in the evening, in the course of which prisoners might be hanged or flogged. If a prisoner was missing, the others had to remain standing until the absentee was found or the reason for the absence discovered, even if it took hours. On 6 July 1940, roll call lasted 19 hours because a Polish prisoner, Tadeusz Wiejowski, had escaped; following an escape in 1941, a group of prisoners was picked out from the escapee’s barracks and sent to block 11 to be starved to death.^[135] After roll call, prisoners retired to their blocks for the night and received their bread rations. Then they had some free time to use the washrooms and receive their mail, unless they were Jews: Jews were not allowed to receive mail. Curfew («nighttime quiet») was marked by a gong at nine o’clock.^[136] Inmates slept in long rows of brick or wooden bunks, or on the floor, lying in and on their clothes and shoes to prevent them from being stolen.^[137] The wooden bunks had blankets and paper mattresses filled with wood shavings; in the brick barracks, inmates lay on straw.^[138] According to Miklós Nyiszli:

Eight hundred to a thousand people were crammed into the superimposed compartments of each barracks. Unable to stretch out completely, they slept there both lengthwise and crosswise, with one man’s feet on another’s head, neck, or chest. Stripped of all human dignity, they pushed and shoved and bit and kicked each other in an effort to get a few more inches’ space on which to sleep a little more comfortably. For they did not have long to sleep.^[139]

Sunday was not a work day, but prisoners had to clean the barracks and take their weekly shower,^[140] and were allowed to write (in German) to their families, although the SS censored the mail. Inmates who did not speak German would trade bread for help.^[141] Observant Jews tried to keep track of the Hebrew calendar and Jewish holidays, including Shabbat, and the weekly Torah portion. No watches, calendars, or clocks were permitted in the camp. Only two Jewish calendars made in Auschwitz survived to the end of the war. Prisoners kept track of the days in other ways, such as obtaining information from newcomers.^[142]

Women’s camp

About 30 percent of the registered inmates were female.^[143] The first mass transport of women, 999 non-Jewish German women from the Ravensbrück concentration camp, arrived on 26 March 1942. Classified as criminal, asocial and political, they were brought to Auschwitz as founder functionaries of the women’s camp.^[144] Rudolf Höss wrote of them: «It was easy to predict that these beasts would mistreat the women over whom they exercised power … Spiritual suffering was completely alien to them.»^[145] They were given serial numbers 1–999.^[46][g] The women’s guard from Ravensbrück, Johanna Langefeld, became the first Auschwitz women’s camp Lagerführerin.^[144] A second mass transport of women, 999 Jews from Poprad, Slovakia, arrived on the same day. According to Danuta Czech, this was the first registered transport sent to Auschwitz by the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA) office IV B4, known as the Jewish Office, led by SS Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann.^[46] (Office IV was the Gestapo.)^[146] A third transport of 798 Jewish women from Bratislava, Slovakia, followed on 28 March.^[46]

Women were at first held in blocks 1–10 of Auschwitz I,^[147] but from 6 August 1942,^[148] 13,000 inmates were transferred to a new women’s camp (Frauenkonzentrationslager or FKL) in Auschwitz II. This consisted at first of 15 brick and 15 wooden barracks in sector (Bauabschnitt) BIa; it was later extended into BIb,^[149] and by October 1943 it held 32,066 women.^[150] In 1943–1944, about 11,000 women were also housed in the Gypsy family camp, as were several thousand in the Theresienstadt family camp.^[151]

Conditions in the women’s camp were so poor that when a group of male prisoners arrived to set up an infirmary in October 1942, their first task, according to researchers from the Auschwitz museum, was to distinguish the corpses from the women who were still alive.^[150] Gisella Perl, a Romanian-Jewish gynecologist and inmate of the women’s camp, wrote in 1948:

There was one latrine for thirty to thirty-two thousand women and we were permitted to use it only at certain hours of the day. We stood in line to get in to this tiny building, knee-deep in human excrement. As we all suffered from dysentry, we could barely wait until our turn came, and soiled our ragged clothes, which never came off our bodies, thus adding to the horror of our existence by the terrible smell that surrounded us like a cloud. The latrine consisted of a deep ditch with planks thrown across it at certain intervals. We squatted on those planks like birds perched on a telegraph wire, so close together that we could not help soiling one another.^[152]

Langefeld was succeeded as Lagerführerin in October 1942 by SS Oberaufseherin Maria Mandl, who developed a reputation for cruelty. Höss hired men to oversee the female supervisors, first SS Obersturmführer Paul Müller, then SS Hauptsturmführer Franz Hössler.^[153] Mandl and Hössler were executed after the war. Sterilization experiments were carried out in barracks 30 by a German gynecologist, Carl Clauberg, and another German doctor, Horst Schumann.^[150]

Medical experiments, block 10

German doctors performed a variety of experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz. SS doctors tested the efficacy of X-rays as a sterilization device by administering large doses to female prisoners. Carl Clauberg injected chemicals into women’s uteruses in an effort to glue them shut. Prisoners were infected with spotted fever for vaccination research and exposed to toxic substances to study the effects.^[154] In one experiment, Bayer—then part of IG Farben—paid RM 150 each for 150 female inmates from Auschwitz (the camp had asked for RM 200 per woman), who were transferred to a Bayer facility to test an anesthetic. A Bayer employee wrote to Rudolf Höss: «The transport of 150 women arrived in good condition. However, we were unable to obtain conclusive results because they died during the experiments. We would kindly request that you send us another group of women to the same number and at the same price.» The Bayer research was led at Auschwitz by Helmuth Vetter of Bayer/IG Farben, who was also an Auschwitz physician and SS captain, and by Auschwitz physicians Friedrich Entress and Eduard Wirths.^[155]

The most infamous doctor at Auschwitz was Josef Mengele, the «Angel of Death», who worked in Auschwitz II from 30 May 1943, at first in the gypsy family camp.^[156] Interested in performing research on identical twins, dwarfs, and those with hereditary disease, Mengele set up a kindergarten in barracks 29 and 31 for children he was experimenting on, and for all Romani children under six, where they were given better food rations.^[157] From May 1944, he would select twins and dwarfs from among the new arrivals during «selection»,^[158] reportedly calling for twins with «Zwillinge heraus!» («twins step forward!»).^[159] He and other doctors (the latter prisoners) would measure the twins’ body parts, photograph them, and subject them to dental, sight and hearing tests, x-rays, blood tests, surgery, and blood transfusions between them.^[160] Then he would have them killed and dissected.^[158] Kurt Heissmeyer, another German doctor and SS officer, took 20 Polish Jewish children from Auschwitz to use in pseudoscientific experiments at the Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg, where he injected them with the tuberculosis bacilli to test a cure for tuberculosis. In April 1945, the children were murdered by hanging to conceal the project.^[161]

A Jewish skeleton collection was obtained from among a pool of 115 Jewish inmates, chosen for their perceived stereotypical racial characteristics. Rudolf Brandt and Wolfram Sievers, general manager of the Ahnenerbe (a Nazi research institute), delivered the skeletons to the collection of the Anatomy Institute at the Reichsuniversität Straßburg in Alsace-Lorraine. The collection was sanctioned by Heinrich Himmler and under the direction of August Hirt. Ultimately 87 of the inmates were shipped to Natzweiler-Struthof and murdered in August 1943.^[162] Brandt and Sievers were executed in 1948 after being convicted during the Doctors’ trial, part of the Subsequent Nuremberg trials.^[163]

Punishment, block 11

Prisoners could be beaten and killed by guards and kapos for the slightest infraction of the rules. Polish historian Irena Strzelecka writes that kapos were given nicknames that reflected their sadism: «Bloody», «Iron», «The Strangler», «The Boxer».^[164] Based on the 275 extant reports of punishment in the Auschwitz archives, Strzelecka lists common infractions: returning a second time for food at mealtimes, removing your own gold teeth to buy bread, breaking into the pigsty to steal the pigs’ food, putting your hands in your pockets.^[165]

Flogging during roll-call was common. A flogging table called «the goat» immobilized prisoners’ feet in a box, while they stretched themselves across the table. Prisoners had to count out the lashes—»25 mit besten Dank habe ich erhalten» («25 received with many thanks»)— and if they got the figure wrong, the flogging resumed from the beginning.^[165] Punishment by «the post» involved tying prisoners hands behind their backs with chains attached to hooks, then raising the chains so the prisoners were left dangling by the wrists. If their shoulders were too damaged afterwards to work, they might be sent to the gas chamber. Prisoners were subjected to the post for helping a prisoner who had been beaten, and for picking up a cigarette butt.^[166] To extract information from inmates, guards would force their heads onto the stove, and hold them there, burning their faces and eyes.^[167]

Known as block 13 until 1941, block 11 of Auschwitz I was the prison within the prison, reserved for inmates suspected of resistance activities.^[168] Cell 22 in block 11 was a windowless standing cell (Stehbunker). Split into four sections, each section measured less than 1.0 m² (11 sq ft) and held four prisoners, who entered it through a hatch near the floor. There was a 5 cm x 5 cm vent for air, covered by a perforated sheet. Strzelecka writes that prisoners might have to spend several nights in cell 22; Wiesław Kielar spent four weeks in it for breaking a pipe.^[169] Several rooms in block 11 were deemed the Polizei-Ersatz-Gefängnis Myslowitz in Auschwitz (Auschwitz branch of the police station at Mysłowice).^[170] There were also Sonderbehandlung cases («special treatment») for Poles and others regarded as dangerous to Nazi Germany.^[171]

Death wall

The courtyard between blocks 10 and 11, known as the «death wall», served as an execution area, including for Poles in the General Government area who had been sentenced to death by a criminal court.^[171] The first executions, by shooting inmates in the back of the head, took place at the death wall on 11 November 1941, Poland’s National Independence Day. The 151 accused were led to the wall one at a time, stripped naked and with their hands tied behind their backs. Danuta Czech noted that a «clandestine Catholic mass» was said the following Sunday on the second floor of Block 4 in Auschwitz I, in a narrow space between bunks.^[172]

An estimated 4,500 Polish political prisoners were executed at the death wall, including members of the camp resistance. An additional 10,000 Poles were brought to the camp to be executed without being registered. About 1,000 Soviet prisoners of war died by execution, although this is a rough estimate. A Polish government-in-exile report stated that 11,274 prisoners and 6,314 prisoners of war had been executed.^[173] Rudolf Höss wrote that «execution orders arrived in an unbroken stream».^[170] According to SS officer Perry Broad, «[s]ome of these walking skeletons had spent months in the stinking cells, where not even animals would be kept, and they could barely manage to stand straight. And yet, at that last moment, many of them shouted ‘Long live Poland’, or ‘Long live freedom’.»^[174] The dead included Colonel Jan Karcz and Major Edward Gött-Getyński, executed on 25 January 1943 with 51 others suspected of resistance activities. Józef Noji, the Polish long-distance runner, was executed on 15 February that year.^[175] In October 1944, 200 Sonderkommando were executed for their part in the Sonderkommando revolt.^[176]

Family camps

Gypsy family camp

A separate camp for the Roma, the Zigeunerfamilienlager («Gypsy family camp»), was set up in the BIIe sector of Auschwitz II-Birkenau in February 1943. For unknown reasons, they were not subject to selection and families were allowed to stay together. The first transport of German Roma arrived on 26 February that year. There had been a small number of Romani inmates before that; two Czech Romani prisoners, Ignatz and Frank Denhel, tried to escape in December 1942, the latter successfully, and a Polish Romani woman, Stefania Ciuron, arrived on 12 February 1943 and escaped in April.^[178] Josef Mengele, the Holocaust’s most infamous physician, worked in the gypsy family camp from 30 May 1943 when he began his work in Auschwitz.^[156]

The Auschwitz registry (Hauptbücher) shows that 20,946 Roma were registered prisoners,^[179] and another 3,000 are thought to have entered unregistered.^[180] On 22 March 1943, one transport of 1,700 Polish Sinti and Roma was gassed on arrival because of illness, as was a second group of 1,035 on 25 May 1943.^[179] The SS tried to liquidate the camp on 16 May 1944, but the Roma fought them, armed with knives and iron pipes, and the SS retreated. Shortly after this, the SS removed nearly 2,908 from the family camp to work, and on 2 August 1944 gassed the other 2,897. Ten thousand remain unaccounted for.^[181]

Theresienstadt family camp

The SS deported around 18,000 Jews to Auschwitz from the Theresienstadt ghetto in Terezin, Czechoslovakia,^[182] beginning on 8 September 1943 with a transport of 2,293 male and 2,713 female prisoners.^[183] Placed in sector BIIb as a «family camp», they were allowed to keep their belongings, wear their own clothes, and write letters to family; they did not have their hair shaved and were not subjected to selection.^[182] Correspondence between Adolf Eichmann’s office and the International Red Cross suggests that the Germans set up the camp to cast doubt on reports, in time for a planned Red Cross visit to Auschwitz, that mass murder was taking place there.^[184] The women and girls were placed in odd-numbered barracks and the men and boys in even-numbered. An infirmary was set up in barracks 30 and 32, and barracks 31 became a school and kindergarten.^[182] The somewhat better living conditions were nevertheless inadequate; 1,000 members of the family camp were dead within six months.^[185] Two other groups of 2,491 and 2,473 Jews arrived from Theresienstadt in the family camp on 16 and 20 December 1943.^[186]

On 8 March 1944, 3,791 of the prisoners (men, women and children) were sent to the gas chambers; the men were taken to crematorium III and the women later to crematorium II.^[187] Some of the group were reported to have sung Hatikvah and the Czech national anthem on the way.^[188] Before they were murdered, they had been asked to write postcards to relatives, postdated to 25–27 March. Several twins were held back for medical experiments.^[189] The Czechoslovak government-in-exile initiated diplomatic manoeuvers to save the remaining Czech Jews after its representative in Bern received the Vrba-Wetzler report, written by two escaped prisoners, Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler, which warned that the remaining family-camp inmates would be gassed soon.^[190] The BBC also became aware of the report; its German service broadcast news of the family-camp murders during its women’s programme on 16 June 1944, warning: «All those responsible for such massacres from top downwards will be called to account.»^[191] The Red Cross visited Theresienstadt in June 1944 and were persuaded by the SS that no one was being deported from there.^[184] The following month, about 2,000 women from the family camp were selected to be moved to other camps and 80 boys were moved to the men’s camp; the remaining 7,000 were gassed between 10 and 12 July.^[192]

Selection and extermination process

Gas chambers

The first gassings at Auschwitz took place in early September 1941, when around 850 inmates—Soviet prisoners of war and sick Polish inmates—were killed with Zyklon B in the basement of block 11 in Auschwitz I. The building proved unsuitable, so gassings were conducted instead in crematorium I, also in Auschwitz I, which operated until December 1942. There, more than 700 victims could be killed at once.^[194] Tens of thousands were killed in crematorium I.^[49] To keep the victims calm, they were told they were to undergo disinfection and de-lousing; they were ordered to undress outside, then were locked in the building and gassed. After its decommissioning as a gas chamber, the building was converted to a storage facility and later served as an SS air raid shelter.^[195] The gas chamber and crematorium were reconstructed after the war. Dwork and van Pelt write that a chimney was recreated; four openings in the roof were installed to show where the Zyklon B had entered; and two of the three furnaces were rebuilt with the original components.^[31]

In early 1942, mass exterminations were moved to two provisional gas chambers (the «red house» and «white house», known as bunkers 1 and 2) in Auschwitz II, while the larger crematoria (II, III, IV, and V) were under construction. Bunker 2 was temporarily reactivated from May to November 1944, when large numbers of Hungarian Jews were gassed.^[197] In summer 1944 the combined capacity of the crematoria and outdoor incineration pits was 20,000 bodies per day.^[198] A planned sixth facility—crematorium VI—was never built.^[199]

From 1942, Jews were being transported to Auschwitz from all over German-occupied Europe by rail, arriving in daily convoys.^[200] The gas chambers worked to their fullest capacity from May to July 1944, during the Holocaust in Hungary.^[201] A rail spur leading to crematoria II and III in Auschwitz II was completed that May, and a new ramp was built between sectors BI and BII to deliver the victims closer to the gas chambers (images top right). On 29 April the first 1,800 Jews from Hungary arrived at the camp.^[202] From 14 May until early July 1944, 437,000 Hungarian Jews, half the pre-war population, were deported to Auschwitz, at a rate of 12,000 a day for a considerable part of that period.^[124] The crematoria had to be overhauled. Crematoria II and III were given new elevators leading from the stoves to the gas chambers, new grates were fitted, and several of the dressing rooms and gas chambers were painted. Cremation pits were dug behind crematorium V.^[202] The incoming volume was so great that the Sonderkommando resorted to burning corpses in open-air pits as well as in the crematoria.^[203]

Selection

According to Polish historian Franciszek Piper, of the 1,095,000 Jews deported to Auschwitz, around 205,000 were registered in the camp and given serial numbers; 25,000 were sent to other camps; and 865,000 were murdered soon after arrival.^[204] Adding non-Jewish victims gives a figure of 900,000 who were murdered without being registered.^[205]

During «selection» on arrival, those deemed able to work were sent to the right and admitted into the camp (registered), and the rest were sent to the left to be gassed. The group selected to die included almost all children, women with small children, the elderly, and others who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be fit for work.^[206] Practically any fault—scars, bandages, boils and emaciation—might provide reason enough to be deemed unfit.^[207] Children might be made to walk toward a stick held at a certain height; those who could walk under it were selected for the gas.^[208] Inmates unable to walk or who arrived at night were taken to the crematoria on trucks; otherwise the new arrivals were marched there.^[209] Their belongings were seized and sorted by inmates in the «Kanada» warehouses, an area of the camp in sector BIIg that housed 30 barracks used as storage facilities for plundered goods; it derived its name from the inmates’ view of Canada as a land of plenty.^[210]

Inside the crematoria

The crematoria consisted of a dressing room, gas chamber, and furnace room. In crematoria II and III, the dressing room and gas chamber were underground; in IV and V, they were on the ground floor. The dressing room had numbered hooks on the wall to hang clothes. In crematorium II, there was also a dissection room (Sezierraum).^[212] SS officers told the victims they had to take a shower and undergo delousing. The victims undressed in the dressing room and walked into the gas chamber; signs said «Bade» (bath) or «Desinfektionsraum» (disinfection room). A former prisoner testified that the language of the signs changed depending on who was being killed.^[213] Some inmates were given soap and a towel.^[214] A gas chamber could hold up to 2,000; one former prisoner said it was around 3,000.^[215]

The Zyklon B was delivered to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygiene Institute.^[216] After the doors were shut, SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber. The victims were usually dead within 10 minutes; Rudolf Höss testified that it took up to 20 minutes.^[217] Leib Langfus, a member of the Sonderkommando, buried his diary (written in Yiddish) near crematorium III in Auschwitz II. It was found in 1952, signed «A.Y.R.A»:^[218]

It would be difficult to even imagine that so many people would fit in such a small [room]. Anyone who did not want to go inside was shot […] or torn apart by the dogs. They would have suffocated from the lack of air within several hours. Then all the doors were sealed tight and the gas thrown in by way of a small hole in the ceiling. There was nothing more that the people inside could do. And so they only screamed in bitter, lamentable voices. Others complained in voices full of despair, and others still sobbed spasmodically and sent up a dire, heart-rending weeping. … And in the meantime, their voices grew weaker and weaker … Because of the great crowding, people fell one atop another as they died, until a heap arose consisting of five or six layers atop the other, reaching a height of one meter. Mothers froze in a seated position on the ground embracing their children in their arms, and husbands and wives died hugging each other. Some of the people made up a formless mass. Others stood in a leaning position, while the upper parts, from the stomach up, were in a lying position. Some of the people had turned completely blue under the influence of the gas, while others looks entirely fresh, as if they were asleep.^[219]

Use of corpses

Sonderkommando wearing gas masks dragged the bodies from the chamber. They removed glasses and artificial limbs and shaved off the women’s hair;^[217] women’s hair was removed before they entered the gas chamber at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, but at Auschwitz it was done after death.^[220] By 6 February 1943, the Reich Economic Ministry had received 3,000 kg of women’s hair from Auschwitz and Majdanek.^[220] The hair was first cleaned in a solution of sal ammoniac, dried on the brick floor of the crematoria, combed, and placed in paper bags.^[221] The hair was shipped to various companies, including one manufacturing plant in Bremen-Bluementhal, where workers found tiny coins with Greek letters on some of the braids, possibly from some of the 50,000 Greek Jews deported to Auschwitz in 1943.^[222] When they liberated the camp in January 1945, the Red Army found 7,000 kg of human hair in bags ready to ship.^[221]

Just before cremation, jewelry was removed, along with dental work and teeth containing precious metals.^[223] Gold was removed from the teeth of dead prisoners from 23 September 1940 onwards by order of Heinrich Himmler.^[224] The work was carried out by members of the Sonderkommando who were dentists; anyone overlooking dental work might themselves be cremated alive.^[223] The gold was sent to the SS Health Service and used by dentists to treat the SS and their families; 50 kg had been collected by 8 October 1942.^[224] By early 1944, 10–12 kg of gold were being extracted monthly from victims’ teeth.^[225]

The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators, and the ashes were buried, thrown in the Vistula river, or used as fertilizer. Any bits of bone that had not burned properly were ground down in wooden mortars.^[226]

Death toll

At least 1.3 million people were sent to Auschwitz between 1940 and 1945, and at least 1.1 million died.^[7] Overall 400,207 prisoners were registered in the camp: 268,657 male and 131,560 female.^[143] A study in the late 1980s by Polish historian Franciszek Piper, published by Yad Vashem in 1991,^[227] used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate that, of the 1.3 million sent to the camp, 1,082,000 had died there, a figure (rounded up to 1.1 million) that Piper regarded as a minimum.^[7] That figure came to be widely accepted.^[h]

The Germans tried to conceal how many they had murdered. In July 1942, according to Rudolf Höss’s post-war memoir, Höss received an order from Heinrich Himmler, via Adolf Eichmann’s office and SS commander Paul Blobel, that «[a]ll mass graves were to be opened and the corpses burned. In addition the ashes were to be disposed of in such a way that it would be impossible at some future time to calculate the number of corpses burned.»^[231]

Earlier estimates of the death toll were higher than Piper’s. Following the camp’s liberation, the Soviet government issued a statement, on 8 May 1945, that four million people had been murdered on the site, a figure based on the capacity of the crematoria.^[232] Höss told prosecutors at Nuremberg that at least 2,500,000 people had been gassed there, and that another 500,000 had died of starvation and disease.^[233] He testified that the figure of over two million had come from Eichmann.^[234] In his memoirs, written in custody, Höss wrote that Eichmann had given the figure of 2.5 million to Höss’s superior officer Richard Glücks, based on records that had been destroyed.^[235] Höss regarded this figure as «far too high. Even Auschwitz had limits to its destructive possibilities,» he wrote.^[236]

Nationality/ethnicity (Source: Franciszek Piper)[2]	Registered deaths (Auschwitz)	Unregistered deaths (Auschwitz)	Total
Jews	95,000	865,000	960,000
Ethnic Poles	64,000	10,000	74,000 (70,000–75,000)
Roma and Sinti	19,000	2,000	21,000
Soviet prisoners of war	12,000	3,000	15,000
Other Europeans: Soviet citizens (Byelorussians, Russians, Ukrainians), Czechs, Yugoslavs, French, Germans, Austrians	10,000–15,000	n/a	10,000–15,000
Total deaths in Auschwitz, 1940–1945	200,000–205,000	880,000	1,080,000–1,085,000

Around one in six Jews murdered in the Holocaust died in Auschwitz.^[237] By nation, the greatest number of Auschwitz’s Jewish victims originated from Hungary, accounting for 430,000 deaths, followed by Poland (300,000), France (69,000), Netherlands (60,000), Greece (55,000), Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (46,000), Slovakia (27,000), Belgium (25,000), Germany and Austria (23,000), Yugoslavia (10,000), Italy (7,500), Norway (690), and others (34,000).^[238] Timothy Snyder writes that fewer than one percent of the million Soviet Jews murdered in the Holocaust were murdered in Auschwitz.^[239] Of the at least 387 Jehovah’s Witnesses who were imprisoned at Auschwitz, 132 died in the camp.^[240]

Resistance, escapes, and liberation

Camp resistance, flow of information

• 

Information about Auschwitz became available to the Allies as a result of reports by Captain Witold Pilecki of the Polish Home Army^[243] who, as «Tomasz Serafiński» (serial number 4859),^[244] allowed himself to be arrested in Warsaw and taken to Auschwitz.^[243] He was imprisoned there from 22 September 1940^[245] until his escape on 27 April 1943.^[244] Michael Fleming writes that Pilecki was instructed to sustain morale, organize food, clothing and resistance, prepare to take over the camp if possible, and smuggle information out to the Polish military.^[243] Pilecki called his resistance movement Związek Organizacji Wojskowej (ZOW, «Union of Military Organization»).^[245]

The resistance sent out the first oral message about Auschwitz with Dr. Aleksander Wielkopolski, a Polish engineer who was released in October 1940.^[246] The following month the Polish underground in Warsaw prepared a report on the basis of that information, The camp in Auschwitz, part of which was published in London in May 1941 in a booklet, The German Occupation of Poland, by the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The report said of the Jews in the camp that «scarcely any of them came out alive». According to Fleming, the booklet was «widely circulated amongst British officials». The Polish Fortnightly Review based a story on it, writing that «three crematorium furnaces were insufficient to cope with the bodies being cremated», as did The Scotsman on 8 January 1942, the only British news organization to do so.^[247]

On 24 December 1941, the resistance groups representing the various prisoner factions met in block 45 and agreed to cooperate. Fleming writes that it has not been possible to track Pilecki’s early intelligence from the camp. Pilecki compiled two reports after he escaped in April 1943; the second, Raport W, detailed his life in Auschwitz I and estimated that 1.5 million people, mostly Jews, had been murdered.^[248] On 1 July 1942, the Polish Fortnightly Review published a report describing Birkenau, writing that «prisoners call this supplementary camp ‘Paradisal’, presumably because there is only one road, leading to Paradise». Reporting that inmates were being killed «through excessive work, torture and medical means», it noted the gassing of the Soviet prisoners of war and Polish inmates in Auschwitz I in September 1941, the first gassing in the camp. It said: «It is estimated that the Oswiecim camp can accommodate fifteen thousand prisoners, but as they die on a mass scale there is always room for new arrivals.»^[249]

The Polish government-in-exile in London first reported the gassing of prisoners in Auschwitz on 21 July 1942,^[250] and reported the gassing of Soviet POWs and Jews on 4 September 1942.^[251] In 1943, the Kampfgruppe Auschwitz (Combat Group Auschwitz) was organized within the camp with the aim of sending out information about what was happening.^[252] The Sonderkommando buried notes in the ground, hoping they would be found by the camp’s liberators.^[253] The group also smuggled out photographs; the Sonderkommando photographs, of events around the gas chambers in Auschwitz II, were smuggled out of the camp in September 1944 in a toothpaste tube.^[254]

According to Fleming, the British press responded, in 1943 and the first half of 1944, either by not publishing reports about Auschwitz or by burying them on the inside pages. The exception was the Polish Jewish Observer, a City and East London Observer supplement edited by Joel Cang, a former Warsaw correspondent for the Manchester Guardian. The British reticence stemmed from a Foreign Office concern that the public might pressure the government to respond or provide refuge for the Jews, and that British actions on behalf of the Jews might affect its relationships in the Middle East. There was similar reticence in the United States, and indeed within the Polish government-in-exile and the Polish resistance. According to Fleming, the scholarship suggests that the Polish resistance distributed information about the Holocaust in Auschwitz without challenging the Allies’ reluctance to highlight it.^[255]

Escapes, Auschwitz Protocols

From the first escape on 6 July 1940 of Tadeusz Wiejowski, at least 802 prisoners (757 men and 45 women) tried to escape from the camp, according to Polish historian Henryk Świebocki.^[256][i] He writes that most escapes were attempted from work sites outside the camp’s perimeter fence.^[258] Of the 802 escapes, 144 were successful, 327 were caught, and the fate of 331 is unknown.^[257]

Four Polish prisoners—Eugeniusz Bendera [pl] (serial number 8502), Kazimierz Piechowski (no. 918), Stanisław Gustaw Jaster [pl] (no. 6438), and Józef Lempart (no. 3419)—escaped successfully on 20 June 1942. After breaking into a warehouse, three of them dressed as SS officers and stole rifles and an SS staff car, which they drove out of the camp with the fourth handcuffed as a prisoner. They wrote later to Rudolf Höss apologizing for the loss of the vehicle.^[259] On 21 July 1944, Polish inmate Jerzy Bielecki dressed in an SS uniform and, using a faked pass, managed to cross the camp’s gate with his Jewish girlfriend, Cyla Cybulska, pretending that she was wanted for questioning. Both survived the war. For having saved her, Bielecki was recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations.^[260]

Jerzy Tabeau (no. 27273, registered as Jerzy Wesołowski) and Roman Cieliczko (no. 27089), both Polish prisoners, escaped on 19 November 1943; Tabeau made contact with the Polish underground and, between December 1943 and early 1944, wrote what became known as the Polish Major’s report about the situation in the camp.^[261] On 27 April 1944, Rudolf Vrba (no. 44070) and Alfréd Wetzler (no. 29162) escaped to Slovakia, carrying detailed information to the Slovak Jewish Council about the gas chambers. The distribution of the Vrba-Wetzler report, and publication of parts of it in June 1944, helped to halt the deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. On 27 May 1944, Arnost Rosin (no. 29858) and Czesław Mordowicz (no. 84216) also escaped to Slovakia; the Rosin-Mordowicz report was added to the Vrba-Wetzler and Tabeau reports to become what is known as the Auschwitz Protocols.^[262] The reports were first published in their entirety in November 1944 by the United States War Refugee Board as The Extermination Camps of Auschwitz (Oświęcim) and Birkenau in Upper Silesia.^[263]

Bombing proposal

In January 1941 the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army and prime minister-in-exile, Władysław Sikorski, arranged for a report to be forwarded to Air Marshal Richard Pierse, head of RAF Bomber Command.^[264] Written by Auschwitz prisoners in or around December 1940, the report described the camp’s atrocious living conditions and asked the Polish government-in-exile to bomb it:

The prisoners implore the Polish Government to have the camp bombed. The destruction of the electrified barbed wire, the ensuing panic and darkness prevailing, the chances of escape would be great. The local population will hide them and help them to leave the neighbourhood. The prisoners are confidently awaiting the day when Polish planes from Great Britain will enable their escape. This is the prisoners unanimous demand to the Polish Government in London.^[265]

Pierse replied that it was not technically feasible to bomb the camp without harming the prisoners.^[264] In May 1944 Slovak rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandl suggested that the Allies bomb the rails leading to the camp.^[266] Historian David Wyman published an essay in Commentary in 1978 entitled «Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed», arguing that the United States Army Air Forces could and should have attacked Auschwitz. In his book The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945 (1984), Wyman argued that, since the IG Farben plant at Auschwitz III had been bombed three times between August and December 1944 by the US Fifteenth Air Force in Italy, it would have been feasible for the other camps or railway lines to be bombed too. Bernard Wasserstein’s Britain and the Jews of Europe (1979) and Martin Gilbert’s Auschwitz and the Allies (1981) raised similar questions about British inaction.^[267] Since the 1990s, other historians have argued that Allied bombing accuracy was not sufficient for Wyman’s proposed attack, and that counterfactual history is an inherently problematic endeavor.^[268]

Sonderkommando revolt

The Sonderkommando who worked in the crematoria were witnesses to the mass murder and were therefore regularly murdered themselves.^[270] On 7 October 1944, following an announcement that 300 of them were to be sent to a nearby town to clear away rubble—»transfers» were a common ruse for the murder of prisoners—the group, mostly Jews from Greece and Hungary, staged an uprising.^[271] They attacked the SS with stones and hammers, killing three of them, and set crematorium IV on fire with rags soaked in oil that they had hidden.^[272] Hearing the commotion, the Sonderkommando at crematorium II believed that a camp uprising had begun and threw their Oberkapo into a furnace. After escaping through a fence using wirecutters, they managed to reach Rajsko, where they hid in the granary of an Auschwitz satellite camp, but the SS pursued and killed them by setting the granary on fire.^[273]

By the time the rebellion at crematorium IV had been suppressed, 212 members of the Sonderkommando were still alive and 451 had been killed.^[274] The dead included Zalmen Gradowski, who kept notes of his time in Auschwitz and buried them near crematorium III; after the war, another Sonderkommando member showed the prosecutors where to dig.^[275] The notes were published in several formats, including in 2017 as From the Heart of Hell.^[276]

Evacuation and death marches

The last mass transports to arrive in Auschwitz were 60,000–70,000 Jews from the Łódź Ghetto, some 2,000 from Theresienstadt, and 8,000 from Slovakia.^[277] The last selection took place on 30 October 1944.^[198] On 1 or 2 November 1944, Heinrich Himmler ordered the SS to halt the mass murder by gas.^[278][why?] On 25 November, he ordered that Auschwitz’s gas chambers and crematoria be destroyed. The Sonderkommando and other prisoners began the job of dismantling the buildings and cleaning up the site.^[279] On 18 January 1945, Engelbert Marketsch, a German criminal transferred from Mauthausen, became the last prisoner to be assigned a serial number in Auschwitz, number 202499.^[280]

According to Polish historian Andrzej Strzelecki, the evacuation of the camp was one of its «most tragic chapters».^[281] Himmler ordered the evacuation of all camps in January 1945, telling camp commanders: «The Führer holds you personally responsible for … making sure that not a single prisoner from the concentration camps falls alive into the hands of the enemy.»^[282] The plundered goods from the «Kanada» barracks, together with building supplies, were transported to the German interior. Between 1 December 1944 and 15 January 1945, over one million items of clothing were packed to be shipped out of Auschwitz; 95,000 such parcels were sent to concentration camps in Germany.^[283]

Beginning on 17 January, some 58,000 Auschwitz detainees (about two-thirds Jews)—over 20,000 from Auschwitz I and II and over 30,000 from the subcamps—were evacuated under guard, at first heading west on foot, then by open-topped freight trains, to concentration camps in Germany and Austria: Bergen-Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, Flossenburg, Gross-Rosen, Mauthausen, Dora-Mittelbau, Ravensbruck, and Sachsenhausen.^[284] Fewer than 9,000 remained in the camps, deemed too sick to move.^[285] During the marches, the SS shot or otherwise dispatched anyone unable to continue; «execution details» followed the marchers, killing prisoners who lagged behind.^[281] Peter Longerich estimated that a quarter of the detainees were thus killed.^[286] By December 1944 some 15,000 Jewish prisoners had made it from Auschwitz to Bergen-Belsen, where they were liberated by the British on 15 April 1945.^[287]

On 20 January, crematoria II and III were blown up, and on 23 January the «Kanada» warehouses were set on fire; they apparently burned for five days. Crematorium IV had been partly demolished after the Sonderkommando revolt in October, and the rest of it was destroyed later. On 26 January, one day ahead of the Red Army’s arrival, crematorium V was blown up.^[288]

Liberation

The first in the camp complex to be liberated was Auschwitz III, the IG Farben camp at Monowitz; a soldier from the 100th Infantry Division of the Red Army entered the camp around 9 am on Saturday, 27 January 1945.^[289] The 60th Army of the 1st Ukrainian Front (also part of the Red Army) arrived in Auschwitz I and II around 3 pm. They found 7,000 prisoners alive in the three main camps, 500 in the other subcamps, and over 600 corpses.^[290] Items found included 837,000 women’s garments, 370,000 men’s suits, 44,000 pairs of shoes,^[291] and 7,000 kg of human hair, estimated by the Soviet war crimes commission to have come from 140,000 people.^[221] Some of the hair was examined by the Forensic Science Institute in Kraków, where it was found to contain traces of hydrogen cyanide, the main ingredient of Zyklon B.^[292] Primo Levi described seeing the first four soldiers on horseback approach Auschwitz III, where he had been in the sick bay. They threw «strangely embarrassed glances at the sprawling bodies, at the battered huts and at us few still alive …»:^[293]

They did not greet us, nor did they smile; they seemed oppressed not only by compassion but by a confused restraint, which sealed their lips and bound their eyes to the funereal scene. It was that shame we knew so well, the shame that drowned us after the selections, and every time we had to watch, or submit to, some outrage: the shame the Germans did not know, that the just man experiences at another man’s crime; the feeling of guilt that such a crime should exist, that it should have been introduced irrevocably into the world of things that exist, and that his will for good should have proved too weak or null, and should not have availed in defence.^[294]

Georgii Elisavetskii, a Soviet soldier who entered one of the barracks, said in 1980 that he could hear other soldiers telling the inmates: «You are free, comrades!» But they did not respond, so he tried in Russian, Polish, German, Ukrainian. Then he used some Yiddish: «They think that I am provoking them. They begin to hide. And only when I said to them: ‘Do not be afraid, I am a colonel of Soviet Army and a Jew. We have come to liberate you’ … Finally, as if the barrier collapsed … they rushed toward us shouting, fell on their knees, kissed the flaps of our overcoats, and threw their arms around our legs.»^[291]

The Soviet military medical service and Polish Red Cross (PCK) set up field hospitals that looked after 4,500 prisoners suffering from the effects of starvation (mostly diarrhea) and tuberculosis. Local volunteers helped until the Red Cross team arrived from Kraków in early February.^[295] In Auschwitz II, the layers of excrement on the barracks floors had to be scraped off with shovels. Water was obtained from snow and from fire-fighting wells. Before more help arrived, 2,200 patients there were looked after by a few doctors and 12 PCK nurses. All the patients were later moved to the brick buildings in Auschwitz I, where several blocks became a hospital, with medical personnel working 18-hour shifts.^[296]

The liberation of Auschwitz received little press attention at the time; the Red Army was focusing on its advance toward Germany and liberating the camp had not been one of its key aims. Boris Polevoi reported on the liberation in Pravda on 2 February 1945 but made no mention of Jews;^[297] inmates were described collectively as «victims of Fascism».^[298] It was when the Western Allies arrived in Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, and Dachau in April 1945 that the liberation of the camps received extensive coverage.^[299]

After the war

Trials of war criminals

Only 789 Auschwitz staff, up to 15 percent, ever stood trial;^[8] most of the cases were pursued in Poland and the Federal Republic of Germany.^[300] According to Aleksander Lasik, female SS officers were treated more harshly than male; of the 17 women sentenced, four received the death penalty and the others longer prison terms than the men. He writes that this may have been because there were only 200 women overseers, and therefore they were more visible and memorable to the inmates.^[301]

Camp commandant Rudolf Höss was arrested by the British on 11 March 1946 near Flensburg, northern Germany, where he had been working as a farmer under the pseudonym Franz Lang. He was imprisoned in Heide, then transferred to Minden for interrogation, part of the British occupation zone. From there he was taken to Nuremberg to testify for the defense in the trial of SS-Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner. Höss was straightforward about his own role in the mass murder and said he had followed the orders of Heinrich Himmler.^[302][j] Extradited to Poland on 25 May 1946,^[303] he wrote his memoirs in custody, first published in Polish in 1951 then in German in 1958 as Kommandant in Auschwitz.^[304] His trial before the Supreme National Tribunal in Warsaw opened on 11 March 1947; he was sentenced to death on 2 April and hanged in Auschwitz I on 16 April, near crematorium I.^[305]

On 25 November 1947, the Auschwitz trial began in Kraków, when Poland’s Supreme National Tribunal brought to court 40 former Auschwitz staff, including commandant Arthur Liebehenschel, women’s camp leader Maria Mandel, and camp leader Hans Aumeier. The trials ended on 22 December 1947, with 23 death sentences, seven life sentences, and nine prison sentences ranging from three to 15 years. Hans Münch, an SS doctor who had several former prisoners testify on his behalf, was the only person to be acquitted.^[306]

Other former staff were hanged for war crimes in the Dachau Trials and the Belsen Trial, including camp leaders Josef Kramer, Franz Hössler, and Vinzenz Schöttl; doctor Friedrich Entress; and guards Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath.^[307] Bruno Tesch and Karl Weinbacher, the owner and chief executive officer of the firm Tesch & Stabenow, one of the suppliers of Zyklon B, were arrested by the British after the war and executed for knowingly supplying the chemical for use on humans.^[308] The 180-day Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, held in West Germany from 20 December 1963 to 20 August 1965, tried 22 defendants, including two dentists, a doctor, two camp adjudants and the camp’s pharmacist. The 700-page indictment, presenting the testimony of 254 witnesses, was accompanied by a 300-page report about the camp, Nationalsozialistische Konzentrationslager, written by historians from the Institut für Zeitgeschichte in Germany, including Martin Broszat and Helmut Krausnick. The report became the basis of their book, Anatomy of the SS State (1968), the first comprehensive study of the camp and the SS. The court convicted 19 of the defendants, giving six of them life sentences and the others between three and ten years.^[309] East Germany also held trials against several former staff members of Auschwitz. One of the defendants they tried was Horst Fischer. Fischer, one of the highest ranking SS physicians in the camp, had personally selected at least 75,000 men, women, and children to be gassed. He was arrested in 1965. The following year, he was convicted of crimes against humanity, sentenced to death, and guillotined. Fischer was the highest-ranking SS physician from Auschwitz to ever be tried by a German court.^[310]

Legacy

In the decades since its liberation, Auschwitz has become a primary symbol of the Holocaust. Historian Timothy D. Snyder attributes this to the camp’s high death toll and «unusual combination of an industrial camp complex and a killing facility», which left behind far more witnesses than single-purpose killing facilities such as Chełmno or Treblinka.^[311] In 2005 the United Nations General Assembly designated 27 January, the date of the camp’s liberation, as International Holocaust Remembrance Day.^[312] Helmut Schmidt visited the site in November 1977, the first West German chancellor to do so, followed by his successor, Helmut Kohl, in November 1989.^[313] In a statement on the 50th anniversary of the liberation, Kohl said that «[t]he darkest and most awful chapter in German history was written at Auschwitz.»^[314] In January 2020, world leaders gathered at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem to commemorate the 75th anniversary.^[315] It was the city’s largest-ever political gathering, with over 45 heads of state and world leaders, including royalty.^[316] At Auschwitz itself, Reuven Rivlin and Andrzej Duda, the presidents of Israel and Poland, laid wreaths.^[317]

Notable memoirists of the camp include Primo Levi, Elie Wiesel, and Tadeusz Borowski.^[237] Levi’s If This is a Man, first published in Italy in 1947 as Se questo è un uomo, became a classic of Holocaust literature, an «imperishable masterpiece».^[318][k] Wiesel wrote about his imprisonment at Auschwitz in Night (1960) and other works, and became a prominent spokesman against ethnic violence; in 1986, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.^[320] Camp survivor Simone Veil was elected President of the European Parliament, serving from 1979 to 1982.^[321] Two Auschwitz victims—Maximilian Kolbe, a priest who volunteered to die by starvation in place of a stranger, and Edith Stein, a Jewish convert to Catholicism—were named saints of the Catholic Church.^[322]

In 2017, a Körber Foundation survey found that 40 percent of 14-year-olds in Germany did not know what Auschwitz was.^[323][324] The following year a survey organized by the Claims Conference, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and others found that 41 percent of 1,350 American adults surveyed, and 66 percent of millennials, did not know what Auschwitz was, while 22 percent said they had never heard of the Holocaust.^[325] A CNN-ComRes poll in 2018 found a similar situation in Europe.^[326]

Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum

On 2 July 1947, the Polish government passed a law establishing a state memorial to remember «the martyrdom of the Polish nation and other nations in Oswiecim».^[327] The museum established its exhibits at Auschwitz I; after the war, the barracks in Auschwitz II-Birkenau had been mostly dismantled and moved to Warsaw to be used on building sites. Dwork and van Pelt write that, in addition, Auschwitz I played a more central role in the persecution of the Polish people, in opposition to the importance of Auschwitz II to the Jews, including Polish Jews.^[328] An exhibition opened in Auschwitz I in 1955, displaying prisoner mug shots; hair, suitcases, and shoes taken from murdered prisoners; canisters of Zyklon B pellets; and other objects related to the killings.^[329] UNESCO added the camp to its list of World Heritage Sites in 1979.^[330] All the museum’s directors were, until 1990, former Auschwitz prisoners. Visitors to the site have increased from 492,500 in 2001, to over one million in 2009,^[331] to two million in 2016.^[332]

There have been protracted disputes over the perceived Christianization of the site. Pope John Paul II celebrated mass over the train tracks leading to Auschwitz II-Birkenau on 7 June 1979^[333] and called the camp «the Golgotha of our age», referring to the crucifixion of Jesus.^[334] More controversy followed when Carmelite nuns founded a convent in 1984 in a former theater outside the camp’s perimeter, near block 11 of Auschwitz I,^[335] after which a local priest and some survivors erected a large cross—one that had been used during the pope’s mass—behind block 11 to commemorate 152 Polish inmates shot by the Germans in 1941.^[336][337] After a long dispute, Pope John Paul II intervened and the nuns moved the convent elsewhere in 1993.^[338] The cross remained, triggering the «War of the Crosses», as more crosses were erected to commemorate Christian victims, despite international objections. The Polish government and Catholic Church eventually agreed to remove all but the original.^[339]

On 4 September 2003, despite a protest from the museum, three Israeli Air Force F-15 Eagles performed a fly-over of Auschwitz II-Birkenau during a ceremony at the camp below. All three pilots were descendants of Holocaust survivors, including the man who led the flight, Major-General Amir Eshel.^[340] On 27 January 2015, some 300 Auschwitz survivors gathered with world leaders under a giant tent at the entrance to Auschwitz II to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the camp’s liberation.^[341][l]

Museum curators consider visitors who pick up items from the ground to be thieves, and local police will charge them as such; the maximum penalty is a 10-year prison sentence.^[343] In 2017 two British youths from the Perse School were fined in Poland after picking up buttons and shards of decorative glass in 2015 from the «Kanada» area of Auschwitz II, where camp victims’ personal effects were stored.^[344] The 16 ft (4.9 m) Arbeit Macht Frei sign over the main camp’s gate was stolen in December 2009 by a Swedish former neo-Nazi and two Polish men. The sign was later recovered.^[345]

In 2018 the Polish government passed an amendment to its Act on the Institute of National Remembrance, making it a criminal offence to violate the «good name» of Poland by accusing it of crimes committed by Germany in the Holocaust, which would include referring to Auschwitz and other camps as «Polish death camps».^[346] Staff at the museum were accused by nationalist media in Poland of focusing too much on the fate of the Jews in Auschwitz at the expense of ethnic Poles. The brother of the museum’s director, Piotr Cywiński, wrote that Cywiński had experienced «50 days of incessant hatred».^[347] After discussions with Israel’s prime minister, amid international concern that the new law would stifle research, the Polish government adjusted the amendment so that anyone accusing Poland of complicity would be guilty only of a civil offence.^[348]

See also

Sources

Notes

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

External links

• Drone footage, 2015 on YouTube
• Google Earth
• Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.
• «Auschwitz». United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
• «The Auschwitz Album». Yad Vashem.
• Auschwitz-Birkenau photographs by Bill Hunt.

Auschwitz Konzentrationslager Auschwitz (German)
Nazi concentration and extermination camp (1940–1945)
Top: Gate to Auschwitz I with its Arbeit macht frei sign («work sets you free») Bottom: Auschwitz II-Birkenau gatehouse; the train track, in operation May–October 1944, led directly to the gas chambers.[1]
Coordinates	50°02′09″N 19°10′42″E / 50.03583°N 19.17833°ECoordinates: 50°02′09″N 19°10′42″E / 50.03583°N 19.17833°E
Known for	The Holocaust
Location	German-occupied Poland
Built by	IG Farben
Operated by	Nazi Germany and the Schutzstaffel
Commandant	See list
Original use	Army barracks
Operational	May 1940 – January 1945
Inmates	Mainly Jews, Poles, Romani, Soviet prisoners of war
Number of inmates	At least 1.3 million[2]
Killed	At least 1.1 million[2]
Liberated by	Soviet Union, 27 January 1945
Notable inmates	Auschwitz prisoners: Adolf Burger, Edith Eger, Anne Frank, Viktor Frankl, Imre Kertész, Maximilian Kolbe, Primo Levi, Fritz Löhner-Beda, Irène Némirovsky, Tadeusz Pietrzykowski, Witold Pilecki, Liliana Segre, Edith Stein, Simone Veil, Rudolf Vrba, Alfréd Wetzler, Elie Wiesel, Else Ury, Eddie Jaku, Władysław Bartoszewski
Notable books	Man’s Search for Meaning (1946) If This Is a Man (1947) Night (1960) Maus (1980–1991)
Website	auschwitz.org/en/
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Official name	Auschwitz Birkenau, German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940–1945)
Type	Cultural
Criteria	vi
Designated	1979 (3rd session)
Reference no.	31
Region	Europe and North America

Auschwitz concentration camp (German: Konzentrationslager Auschwitz (pronounced [kɔntsɛntʁaˈtsi̯oːnsˌlaːɡɐ ˈʔaʊʃvɪts] (listen)); also KL Auschwitz or KZ Auschwitz) was a complex of over 40 concentration and extermination camps operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland (in a portion annexed into Germany in 1939)^[3] during World War II and the Holocaust. It consisted of Auschwitz I, the main camp (Stammlager) in Oświęcim; Auschwitz II-Birkenau, a concentration and extermination camp with gas chambers; Auschwitz III-Monowitz, a labor camp for the chemical conglomerate IG Farben; and dozens of subcamps.^[4] The camps became a major site of the Nazis’ final solution to the Jewish question.

After Germany sparked World War II by invading Poland in September 1939, the Schutzstaffel (SS) converted Auschwitz I, an army barracks, into a prisoner-of-war camp.^[5]

The initial transport of political detainees to Auschwitz consisted almost solely of Poles for whom the camp was initially established. The bulk of inmates were Polish for the first two years.^[6]

In May 1940, German criminals brought to the camp as functionaries, established the camp’s reputation for sadism. Prisoners were beaten, tortured, and executed for the most trivial reasons. The first gassings—of Soviet and Polish prisoners—took place in block 11 of Auschwitz I around August 1941. Construction of Auschwitz II began the following month, and from 1942 until late 1944 freight trains delivered Jews from all over German-occupied Europe to its gas chambers. Of the 1.3 million people sent to Auschwitz, 1.1 million were murdered. The number of victims includes 960,000 Jews (865,000 of whom were gassed on arrival), 74,000 ethnic Poles, 21,000 Roma, 15,000 Soviet prisoners of war, and up to 15,000 other Europeans.^[7] Those not gassed were murdered via starvation, exhaustion, disease, individual executions, or beatings. Others were killed during medical experiments.

At least 802 prisoners tried to escape, 144 successfully, and on 7 October 1944, two Sonderkommando units, consisting of prisoners who operated the gas chambers, launched an unsuccessful uprising. Only 789 Schutzstaffel personnel (no more than 15 percent) ever stood trial after the Holocaust ended;^[8] several were executed, including camp commandant Rudolf Höss. The Allies’ failure to act on early reports of atrocities by bombing the camp or its railways remains controversial.

As the Soviet Red Army approached Auschwitz in January 1945, toward the end of the war, the SS sent most of the camp’s population west on a death march to camps inside Germany and Austria. Soviet troops entered the camp on 27 January 1945, a day commemorated since 2005 as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. In the decades after the war, survivors such as Primo Levi, Viktor Frankl, and Elie Wiesel wrote memoirs of their experiences, and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust. In 1947, Poland founded the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II, and in 1979 it was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.

Background

The ideology of National Socialism (Nazism) combined elements of «racial hygiene», eugenics, antisemitism, pan-Germanism, and territorial expansionism, Richard J. Evans writes.^[9] Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party became obsessed by the «Jewish question».^[10] Both during and immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany in 1933, acts of violence against German Jews became ubiquitous,^[11] and legislation was passed excluding them from certain professions, including the civil service and the law.^[a]

Harassment and economic pressure encouraged Jews to leave Germany; their businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden from advertising in newspapers, and deprived of government contracts.^[13] On 15 September 1935, the Reichstag passed the Nuremberg Laws. One, the Reich Citizenship Law, defined as citizens those of «German or related blood who demonstrate by their behaviour that they are willing and suitable to serve the German People and Reich faithfully», and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor prohibited marriage and extramarital relations between those with «German or related blood» and Jews.^[14]

When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering World War II, Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia be destroyed.^[15] The area around Auschwitz was annexed to the German Reich, as part of first Gau Silesia and from 1941 Gau Upper Silesia.^[16] The camp at Auschwitz was established in April 1940, at first as a quarantine camp for Polish political prisoners. On 22 June 1941, in an attempt to obtain new territory, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union.^[17] The first gassing at Auschwitz—of a group of Soviet prisoners of war—took place around August 1941.^[18] By the end of that year, during what most historians regard as the first phase of the Holocaust, 500,000–800,000 Soviet Jews had been murdered in mass shootings by a combination of German Einsatzgruppen, ordinary German soldiers, and local collaborators.^[19] At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin on 20 January 1942, Reinhard Heydrich outlined the Final Solution to the Jewish Question to senior Nazis,^[20] and from early 1942 freight trains delivered Jews from all over occupied Europe to German extermination camps in Poland: Auschwitz, Bełżec, Chełmno, Majdanek, Sobibór, and Treblinka. Most prisoners were gassed on arrival.^[21]

Camps

Auschwitz I

Growth

A former World War I camp for transient workers and later a Polish army barracks, Auschwitz I was the main camp (Stammlager) and administrative headquarters of the camp complex. Fifty km southwest of Kraków, the site was first suggested in February 1940 as a quarantine camp for Polish prisoners by Arpad Wigand, the inspector of the Sicherheitspolizei (security police) and deputy of Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, the Higher SS and Police Leader for Silesia. Richard Glücks, head of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate, sent Walter Eisfeld, former commandant of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in Oranienburg, Germany, to inspect it.^[23] Around 1,000 m long and 400 m wide,^[24] Auschwitz consisted at the time of 22 brick buildings, eight of them two-story. A second story was added to the others in 1943 and eight new blocks were built.^[25]

Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, approved the site in April 1940 on the recommendation of SS-Obersturmbannführer Rudolf Höss of the camps inspectorate. Höss oversaw the development of the camp and served as its first commandant. The first 30 prisoners arrived on 20 May 1940 from the Sachsenhausen camp. German «career criminals» (Berufsverbrecher), the men were known as «greens» (Grünen) after the green triangles on their prison clothing. Brought to the camp as functionaries, this group did much to establish the sadism of early camp life, which was directed particularly at Polish inmates, until the political prisoners took over their roles.^[26] Bruno Brodniewicz, the first prisoner (who was given serial number 1), became Lagerälteste (camp elder). The others were given positions such as kapo and block supervisor.^[27]

First mass transport

The first mass transport—of 728 Polish male political prisoners, including Catholic priests and Jews—arrived on 14 June 1940 from Tarnów, Poland. They were given serial numbers 31 to 758.^[b] In a letter on 12 July 1940, Höss told Glücks that the local population was «fanatically Polish, ready to undertake any sort of operation against the hated SS men».^[29] By the end of 1940, the SS had confiscated land around the camp to create a 40-square-kilometer (15 sq mi) «zone of interest» (Interessengebiet) patrolled by the SS, Gestapo and local police.^[30] By March 1941, 10,900 were imprisoned in the camp, most of them Poles.^[24]

An inmate’s first encounter with Auschwitz, if they were registered and not sent straight to the gas chamber, was at the prisoner reception center near the gate with the Arbeit macht frei sign, where they were tattooed, shaved, disinfected, and given a striped prison uniform. Built between 1942 and 1944, the center contained a bathhouse, laundry, and 19 gas chambers for delousing clothes. The prisoner reception center of Auschwitz I became the visitor reception center of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.^[22]

Crematorium I, first gassings

Further information: § Gas chambers

Construction of crematorium I began at Auschwitz I at the end of June or beginning of July 1940.^[32] Initially intended not for mass murder but for prisoners who had been executed or had otherwise died in the camp, the crematorium was in operation from August 1940 until July 1943, by which time the crematoria at Auschwitz II had taken over.^[33] By May 1942 three ovens had been installed in crematorium I, which together could burn 340 bodies in 24 hours.^[34]

The first experimental gassing took place around August 1941, when Lagerführer Karl Fritzsch, at the instruction of Rudolf Höss, murdered a group of Soviet prisoners of war by throwing Zyklon B crystals into their basement cell in block 11 of Auschwitz I. A second group of 600 Soviet prisoners of war and around 250 sick Polish prisoners were gassed on 3–5 September.^[35] The morgue was later converted to a gas chamber able to hold at least 700–800 people.^[34][c] Zyklon B was dropped into the room through slits in the ceiling.^[34]

First mass transport of Jews

Historians have disagreed about the date the all-Jewish transports began arriving in Auschwitz. At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin on 20 January 1942, the Nazi leadership outlined, in euphemistic language, its plans for the Final Solution.^[36] According to Franciszek Piper, the Auschwitz commandant Rudolf Höss offered inconsistent accounts after the war, suggesting the extermination began in December 1941, January 1942, or before the establishment of the women’s camp in March 1942.^[37] In Kommandant in Auschwitz, he wrote: «In the spring of 1942 the first transports of Jews, all earmarked for extermination, arrived from Upper Silesia.»^[38] On 15 February 1942, according to Danuta Czech, a transport of Jews from Beuthen, Upper Silesia (Bytom, Poland), arrived at Auschwitz I and was sent straight to the gas chamber.^[d][40] In 1998 an eyewitness said the train contained «the women of Beuthen».^[e] Saul Friedländer wrote that the Beuthen Jews were from the Organization Schmelt labor camps and had been deemed unfit for work.^[42] According to Christopher Browning, transports of Jews unfit for work were sent to the gas chamber at Auschwitz from autumn 1941.^[43] The evidence for this and the February 1942 transport was contested in 2015 by Nikolaus Wachsmann.^[44]

Around 20 March 1942, according to Danuta Czech, a transport of Polish Jews from Silesia and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie was taken straight from the station to the Auschwitz II gas chamber, which had just come into operation.^[45] On 26 and 28 March, two transports of Slovakian Jews were registered as prisoners in the women’s camp, where they were kept for slave labour; these were the first transports organized by Adolf Eichmann’s department IV B4 (the Jewish office) in the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA).^[f] On 30 March the first RHSA transport arrived from France.^[46] «Selection», where new arrivals were chosen for work or the gas chamber, began in April 1942 and was conducted regularly from July. Piper writes that this reflected Germany’s increasing need for labor. Those selected as unfit for work were gassed without being registered as prisoners.^[47]

There is also disagreement about how many were gassed in Auschwitz I. Perry Broad, an SS-Unterscharführer, wrote that «transport after transport vanished in the Auschwitz [I] crematorium.»^[48] In the view of Filip Müller, one of the Auschwitz I Sonderkommando, tens of thousands of Jews were murdered there from France, Holland, Slovakia, Upper Silesia, and Yugoslavia, and from the Theresienstadt, Ciechanow, and Grodno ghettos.^[49] Against this, Jean-Claude Pressac estimated that up to 10,000 people had been murdered in Auschwitz I.^[48] The last inmates gassed there, in December 1942, were around 400 members of the Auschwitz II Sonderkommando, who had been forced to dig up and burn the remains of that camp’s mass graves, thought to hold over 100,000 corpses.^[50]

Auschwitz II-Birkenau

Construction

After visiting Auschwitz I in March 1941, it appears that Himmler ordered that the camp be expanded,^[51] although Peter Hayes notes that, on 10 January 1941, the Polish underground told the Polish government-in-exile in London: «the Auschwitz concentration camp …can accommodate approximately 7,000 prisoners at present, and is to be rebuilt to hold approximately 30,000.»^[52] Construction of Auschwitz II-Birkenau—called a Kriegsgefangenenlager (prisoner-of-war camp) on blueprints—began in October 1941 in Brzezinka, about three kilometers from Auschwitz I.^[53] The initial plan was that Auschwitz II would consist of four sectors (Bauabschnitte I–IV), each consisting of six subcamps (BIIa–BIIf) with their own gates and fences. The first two sectors were completed (sector BI was initially a quarantine camp), but the construction of BIII began in 1943 and stopped in April 1944, and the plan for BIV was abandoned.^[54]

SS-Sturmbannführer Karl Bischoff, an architect, was the chief of construction.^[51] Based on an initial budget of RM 8.9 million, his plans called for each barracks to hold 550 prisoners, but he later changed this to 744 per barracks, which meant the camp could hold 125,000, rather than 97,000.^[55] There were 174 barracks, each measuring 35.4 by 11.0 m (116 by 36 ft), divided into 62 bays of 4 m² (43 sq ft). The bays were divided into «roosts», initially for three inmates and later for four. With personal space of 1 m² (11 sq ft) to sleep and place whatever belongings they had, inmates were deprived, Robert-Jan van Pelt wrote, «of the minimum space needed to exist».^[56]

The prisoners were forced to live in the barracks as they were building them; in addition to working, they faced long roll calls at night. As a result, most prisoners in BIb (the men’s camp) in the early months died of hypothermia, starvation or exhaustion within a few weeks.^[57] Some 10,000 Soviet prisoners of war arrived at Auschwitz I between 7 and 25 October 1941,^[58] but by 1 March 1942 only 945 were still registered; they were transferred to Auschwitz II,^[39] where most of them had died by May.^[59]

Crematoria II–V

Further information: § Gas chambers

The first gas chamber at Auschwitz II was operational by March 1942. On or around 20 March, a transport of Polish Jews sent by the Gestapo from Silesia and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie was taken straight from the Oświęcim freight station to the Auschwitz II gas chamber, then buried in a nearby meadow.^[45] The gas chamber was located in what prisoners called the «little red house» (known as bunker 1 by the SS), a brick cottage that had been turned into a gassing facility; the windows had been bricked up and its four rooms converted into two insulated rooms, the doors of which said «Zur Desinfektion» («to disinfection»). A second brick cottage, the «little white house» or bunker 2, was converted and operational by June 1942.^[60] When Himmler visited the camp on 17 and 18 July 1942, he was given a demonstration of a selection of Dutch Jews, a mass-murder in a gas chamber in bunker 2, and a tour of the building site of Auschwitz III, the new IG Farben plant being constructed at Monowitz.^[61] Use of bunkers I and 2 stopped in spring 1943 when the new crematoria were built, although bunker 2 became operational again in May 1944 for the murder of the Hungarian Jews. Bunker I was demolished in 1943 and bunker 2 in November 1944.^[62]

Plans for crematoria II and III show that both had an oven room 30 by 11.24 m (98.4 by 36.9 ft) on the ground floor, and an underground dressing room 49.43 by 7.93 m (162.2 by 26.0 ft) and gas chamber 30 by 7 m (98 by 23 ft). The dressing rooms had wooden benches along the walls and numbered pegs for clothing. Victims would be led from these rooms to a five-yard-long narrow corridor, which in turn led to a space from which the gas chamber door opened. The chambers were white inside, and nozzles were fixed to the ceiling to resemble showerheads.^[63] The daily capacity of the crematoria (how many bodies could be burned in a 24-hour period) was 340 corpses in crematorium I; 1,440 each in crematoria II and III; and 768 each in IV and V.^[64] By June 1943 all four crematoria were operational, but crematorium I was not used after July 1943. This made the total daily capacity 4,416, although by loading three to five corpses at a time, the Sonderkommando were able to burn some 8,000 bodies a day. This maximum capacity was rarely needed; the average between 1942 and 1944 was 1,000 bodies burned every day.^[65]

Auschwitz III-Monowitz

After examining several sites for a new plant to manufacture Buna-N, a type of synthetic rubber essential to the war effort, the German chemical conglomerate IG Farben chose a site near the towns of Dwory and Monowice (Monowitz in German), about 7 km (4.3 mi) east of Auschwitz I.^[66] Tax exemptions were available to corporations prepared to develop industries in the frontier regions under the Eastern Fiscal Assistance Law, passed in December 1940. In addition to its proximity to the concentration camp, a source of cheap labor, the site had good railway connections and access to raw materials.^[67] In February 1941, Himmler ordered that the Jewish population of Oświęcim be expelled to make way for skilled laborers; that all Poles able to work remain in the town and work on building the factory; and that Auschwitz prisoners be used in the construction work.^[68]

Auschwitz inmates began working at the plant, known as Buna Werke and IG-Auschwitz, in April 1941, demolishing houses in Monowitz to make way for it.^[69] By May, because of a shortage of trucks, several hundred of them were rising at 3 am to walk there twice a day from Auschwitz I.^[70] Because a long line of exhausted inmates walking through the town of Oświęcim might harm German-Polish relations, the inmates were told to shave daily, make sure they were clean, and sing as they walked. From late July they were taken to the factory by train on freight wagons.^[71] Given the difficulty of moving them, including during the winter, IG Farben decided to build a camp at the plant. The first inmates moved there on 30 October 1942.^[72] Known as KL Auschwitz III-Aussenlager (Auschwitz III subcamp), and later as the Monowitz concentration camp,^[73] it was the first concentration camp to be financed and built by private industry.^[74]

Measuring 270 m × 490 m (890 ft × 1,610 ft), the camp was larger than Auschwitz I. By the end of 1944, it housed 60 barracks measuring 17.5 m × 8 m (57 ft × 26 ft), each with a day room and a sleeping room containing 56 three-tiered wooden bunks.^[75] IG Farben paid the SS three or four Reichsmark for nine- to eleven-hour shifts from each worker.^[76] In 1943–1944, about 35,000 inmates worked at the plant; 23,000 (32 a day on average) were killed through malnutrition, disease, and the workload. Within three to four months at the camp, Peter Hayes writes, the inmates were «reduced to walking skeletons».^[77] Deaths and transfers to the gas chambers at Auschwitz II reduced the population by nearly a fifth each month.^[78] Site managers constantly threatened inmates with the gas chambers, and the smell from the crematoria at Auschwitz I and II hung heavy over the camp.^[79]

Although the factory had been expected to begin production in 1943, shortages of labor and raw materials meant start-up was postponed repeatedly.^[80] The Allies bombed the plant in 1944 on 20 August, 13 September, 18 December, and 26 December. On 19 January 1945, the SS ordered that the site be evacuated, sending 9,000 inmates, most of them Jews, on a death march to another Auschwitz subcamp at Gliwice.^[81] From Gliwice, prisoners were taken by rail in open freight wagons to the Buchenwald and Mauthausen concentration camps. The 800 inmates who had been left behind in the Monowitz hospital were liberated along with the rest of the camp on 27 January 1945 by the 1st Ukrainian Front of the Red Army.^[82]

Subcamps

Several other German industrial enterprises, such as Krupp and Siemens-Schuckert, built factories with their own subcamps.^[83] There were around 28 camps near industrial plants, each camp holding hundreds or thousands of prisoners.^[84] Designated as Aussenlager (external camp), Nebenlager (extension camp), Arbeitslager (labor camp), or Aussenkommando (external work detail),^[85] camps were built at Blechhammer, Jawiszowice, Jaworzno, Lagisze, Mysłowice, Trzebinia, and as far afield as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia in Czechoslovakia.^[86] Industries with satellite camps included coal mines, foundries and other metal works, and chemical plants. Prisoners were also made to work in forestry and farming.^[87] For example, Wirtschaftshof Budy, in the Polish village of Budy near Brzeszcze, was a farming subcamp where prisoners worked 12-hour days in the fields, tending animals, and making compost by mixing human ashes from the crematoria with sod and manure.^[88] Incidents of sabotage to decrease production took place in several subcamps, including Charlottengrube, Gleiwitz II, and Rajsko.^[89] Living conditions in some of the camps were so poor that they were regarded as punishment subcamps.^[90]

Life in the camps

SS garrison

Rudolf Höss, born in Baden-Baden in 1900,^[92] was named the first commandant of Auschwitz when Heinrich Himmler ordered on 27 April 1940 that the camp be established.^[93] Living with his wife and children in a two-story stucco house near the commandant’s and administration building,^[94] he served as commandant until 11 November 1943,^[93] with Josef Kramer as his deputy.^[24] Succeeded as commandant by Arthur Liebehenschel,^[93] Höss joined the SS Business and Administration Head Office in Oranienburg as director of Amt DI,^[93] a post that made him deputy of the camps inspectorate.^[95]

Richard Baer became commandant of Auschwitz I on 11 May 1944 and Fritz Hartjenstein of Auschwitz II from 22 November 1943, followed by Josef Kramer from 15 May 1944 until the camp’s liquidation in January 1945. Heinrich Schwarz was commandant of Auschwitz III from the point at which it became an autonomous camp in November 1943 until its liquidation.^[96] Höss returned to Auschwitz between 8 May and 29 July 1944 as the local SS garrison commander (Standortältester) to oversee the arrival of Hungary’s Jews, which made him the superior officer of all the commandants of the Auschwitz camps.^[93]

According to Aleksander Lasik, about 6,335 people (6,161 of them men) worked for the SS at Auschwitz over the course of the camp’s existence;^[97] 4.2 percent were officers, 26.1 percent non-commissioned officers, and 69.7 percent rank and file.^[98] In March 1941, there were 700 SS guards; in June 1942, 2,000; and in August 1944, 3,342. At its peak in January 1945, 4,480 SS men and 71 SS women worked in Auschwitz; the higher number is probably attributable to the logistics of evacuating the camp.^[99] Female guards were known as SS supervisors (SS-Aufseherinnen).^[100]

Most of the staff were from Germany or Austria, but as the war progressed, increasing numbers of Volksdeutsche from other countries, including Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Baltic states, joined the SS at Auschwitz. Not all were ethnically German. Guards were also recruited from Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia.^[101] Camp guards, around three quarters of the SS personnel, were members of the SS-Totenkopfverbände (death’s head units).^[102] Other SS staff worked in the medical or political departments, or in the economic administration, which was responsible for clothing and other supplies, including the property of dead prisoners.^[103] The SS viewed Auschwitz as a comfortable posting; being there meant they had avoided the front and had access to the victims’ property.^[104]

Functionaries and Sonderkommando

Certain prisoners, at first non-Jewish Germans but later Jews and non-Jewish Poles,^[105] were assigned positions of authority as Funktionshäftlinge (functionaries), which gave them access to better housing and food. The Lagerprominenz (camp elite) included Blockschreiber (barracks clerk), Kapo (overseer), Stubendienst (barracks orderly), and Kommandierte (trusties).^[106] Wielding tremendous power over other prisoners, the functionaries developed a reputation as sadists.^[105] Very few were prosecuted after the war, because of the difficulty of determining which atrocities had been performed by order of the SS.^[107]

Although the SS oversaw the murders at each gas chamber, the forced labor portion of the work was done by prisoners known from 1942 as the Sonderkommando (special squad).^[108] These were mostly Jews but they included groups such as Soviet POWs. In 1940–1941 when there was one gas chamber, there were 20 such prisoners, in late 1943 there were 400, and by 1944 during the Holocaust in Hungary the number had risen to 874.^[109] The Sonderkommando removed goods and corpses from the incoming trains, guided victims to the dressing rooms and gas chambers, removed their bodies afterwards, and took their jewelry, hair, dental work, and any precious metals from their teeth, all of which was sent to Germany. Once the bodies were stripped of anything valuable, the Sonderkommando burned them in the crematoria.^[110]

Because they were witnesses to the mass murder, the Sonderkommando lived separately from the other prisoners, although this rule was not applied to the non-Jews among them.^[111] Their quality of life was further improved by their access to the property of new arrivals, which they traded within the camp, including with the SS.^[112] Nevertheless, their life expectancy was short; they were regularly murdered and replaced.^[113] About 100 survived to the camp’s liquidation. They were forced on a death march and by train to the camp at Mauthausen, where three days later they were asked to step forward during roll call. No one did, and because the SS did not have their records, several of them survived.^[114]

Tattoos and triangles

Uniquely at Auschwitz, prisoners were tattooed with a serial number, on their left breast for Soviet prisoners of war^[115] and on the left arm for civilians.^[116][117] Categories of prisoner were distinguishable by triangular pieces of cloth (German: Winkel) sewn onto on their jackets below their prisoner number. Political prisoners (Schutzhäftlinge or Sch), mostly Poles, had a red triangle, while criminals (Berufsverbrecher or BV) were mostly German and wore green. Asocial prisoners (Asoziale or Aso), which included vagrants, prostitutes and the Roma, wore black. Purple was for Jehovah’s Witnesses (Internationale Bibelforscher-Vereinigung or IBV)’s and pink for gay men, who were mostly German.^[118] An estimated 5,000–15,000 gay men prosecuted under German Penal Code Section 175 (proscribing sexual acts between men) were detained in concentration camps, of whom an unknown number were sent to Auschwitz.^[119] Jews wore a yellow badge, the shape of the Star of David, overlaid by a second triangle if they also belonged to a second category. The nationality of the inmate was indicated by a letter stitched onto the cloth. A racial hierarchy existed, with German prisoners at the top. Next were non-Jewish prisoners from other countries. Jewish prisoners were at the bottom.^[120]

Transports

Deportees were brought to Auschwitz crammed in wretched conditions into goods or cattle wagons, arriving near a railway station or at one of several dedicated trackside ramps, including one next to Auschwitz I. The Altejudenrampe (old Jewish ramp), part of the Oświęcim freight railway station, was used from 1942 to 1944 for Jewish transports.^[121][122] Located between Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II, arriving at this ramp meant a 2.5 km journey to Auschwitz II and the gas chambers. Most deportees were forced to walk, accompanied by SS men and a car with a Red Cross symbol that carried the Zyklon B, as well as an SS doctor in case officers were poisoned by mistake. Inmates arriving at night, or who were too weak to walk, were taken by truck.^[123] Work on a new railway line and ramp (right) between sectors BI and BII in Auschwitz II, was completed in May 1944 for the arrival of Hungarian Jews^[122] between May and early July 1944.^[124] The rails led directly to the area around the gas chambers.^[121]

Life for the inmates

The day began at 4:30 am for the men (an hour later in winter), and earlier for the women, when the block supervisor sounded a gong and started beating inmates with sticks to make them wash and use the latrines quickly.^[125] Sanitary arrangements were atrocious, with few latrines and a lack of clean water. Each washhouse had to service thousands of prisoners. In sectors BIa and BIb in Auschwitz II, two buildings containing latrines and washrooms were installed in 1943. These contained troughs for washing and 90 faucets; the toilet facilities were «sewage channels» covered by concrete with 58 holes for seating. There were three barracks with washing facilities or toilets to serve 16 residential barracks in BIIa, and six washrooms/latrines for 32 barracks in BIIb, BIIc, BIId, and BIIe.^[126] Primo Levi described a 1944 Auschwitz III washroom:

It is badly lighted, full of draughts, with the brick floor covered by a layer of mud. The water is not drinkable; it has a revolting smell and often fails for many hours. The walls are covered by curious didactic frescoes: for example, there is the good Häftling [prisoner], portrayed stripped to the waist, about to diligently soap his sheared and rosy cranium, and the bad Häftling, with a strong Semitic nose and a greenish colour, bundled up in his ostentatiously stained clothes with a beret on his head, who cautiously dips a finger into the water of the washbasin. Under the first is written: «So bist du rein» (like this you are clean), and under the second, «So gehst du ein» (like this you come to a bad end); and lower down, in doubtful French but in Gothic script: «La propreté, c’est la santé» [cleanliness is health].^[127]

Prisoners received half a liter of coffee substitute or a herbal tea in the morning, but no food.^[128] A second gong heralded roll call, when inmates lined up outside in rows of ten to be counted. No matter the weather, they had to wait for the SS to arrive for the count; how long they stood there depended on the officers’ mood, and whether there had been escapes or other events attracting punishment.^[129] Guards might force the prisoners to squat for an hour with their hands above their heads or hand out beatings or detention for infractions such as having a missing button or an improperly cleaned food bowl. The inmates were counted and re-counted.^[130]

After roll call, to the sound of «Arbeitskommandos formieren» («form work details»), prisoners walked to their place of work, five abreast, to begin a working day that was normally 11 hours long—longer in summer and shorter in winter.^[132] A prison orchestra, such as the Women’s Orchestra of Auschwitz, was forced to play cheerful music as the workers left the camp. Kapos were responsible for the prisoners’ behavior while they worked, as was an SS escort. Much of the work took place outdoors at construction sites, gravel pits, and lumber yards. No rest periods were allowed. One prisoner was assigned to the latrines to measure the time the workers took to empty their bladders and bowels.^[133]

Lunch was three-quarters of a liter of watery soup at midday, reportedly foul-tasting, with meat in the soup four times a week and vegetables (mostly potatoes and rutabaga) three times. The evening meal was 300 grams of bread, often moldy, part of which the inmates were expected to keep for breakfast the next day, with a tablespoon of cheese or marmalade, or 25 grams of margarine or sausage. Prisoners engaged in hard labor were given extra rations.^[134]

A second roll call took place at seven in the evening, in the course of which prisoners might be hanged or flogged. If a prisoner was missing, the others had to remain standing until the absentee was found or the reason for the absence discovered, even if it took hours. On 6 July 1940, roll call lasted 19 hours because a Polish prisoner, Tadeusz Wiejowski, had escaped; following an escape in 1941, a group of prisoners was picked out from the escapee’s barracks and sent to block 11 to be starved to death.^[135] After roll call, prisoners retired to their blocks for the night and received their bread rations. Then they had some free time to use the washrooms and receive their mail, unless they were Jews: Jews were not allowed to receive mail. Curfew («nighttime quiet») was marked by a gong at nine o’clock.^[136] Inmates slept in long rows of brick or wooden bunks, or on the floor, lying in and on their clothes and shoes to prevent them from being stolen.^[137] The wooden bunks had blankets and paper mattresses filled with wood shavings; in the brick barracks, inmates lay on straw.^[138] According to Miklós Nyiszli:

Eight hundred to a thousand people were crammed into the superimposed compartments of each barracks. Unable to stretch out completely, they slept there both lengthwise and crosswise, with one man’s feet on another’s head, neck, or chest. Stripped of all human dignity, they pushed and shoved and bit and kicked each other in an effort to get a few more inches’ space on which to sleep a little more comfortably. For they did not have long to sleep.^[139]

Sunday was not a work day, but prisoners had to clean the barracks and take their weekly shower,^[140] and were allowed to write (in German) to their families, although the SS censored the mail. Inmates who did not speak German would trade bread for help.^[141] Observant Jews tried to keep track of the Hebrew calendar and Jewish holidays, including Shabbat, and the weekly Torah portion. No watches, calendars, or clocks were permitted in the camp. Only two Jewish calendars made in Auschwitz survived to the end of the war. Prisoners kept track of the days in other ways, such as obtaining information from newcomers.^[142]

Women’s camp

About 30 percent of the registered inmates were female.^[143] The first mass transport of women, 999 non-Jewish German women from the Ravensbrück concentration camp, arrived on 26 March 1942. Classified as criminal, asocial and political, they were brought to Auschwitz as founder functionaries of the women’s camp.^[144] Rudolf Höss wrote of them: «It was easy to predict that these beasts would mistreat the women over whom they exercised power … Spiritual suffering was completely alien to them.»^[145] They were given serial numbers 1–999.^[46][g] The women’s guard from Ravensbrück, Johanna Langefeld, became the first Auschwitz women’s camp Lagerführerin.^[144] A second mass transport of women, 999 Jews from Poprad, Slovakia, arrived on the same day. According to Danuta Czech, this was the first registered transport sent to Auschwitz by the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA) office IV B4, known as the Jewish Office, led by SS Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann.^[46] (Office IV was the Gestapo.)^[146] A third transport of 798 Jewish women from Bratislava, Slovakia, followed on 28 March.^[46]

Women were at first held in blocks 1–10 of Auschwitz I,^[147] but from 6 August 1942,^[148] 13,000 inmates were transferred to a new women’s camp (Frauenkonzentrationslager or FKL) in Auschwitz II. This consisted at first of 15 brick and 15 wooden barracks in sector (Bauabschnitt) BIa; it was later extended into BIb,^[149] and by October 1943 it held 32,066 women.^[150] In 1943–1944, about 11,000 women were also housed in the Gypsy family camp, as were several thousand in the Theresienstadt family camp.^[151]

Conditions in the women’s camp were so poor that when a group of male prisoners arrived to set up an infirmary in October 1942, their first task, according to researchers from the Auschwitz museum, was to distinguish the corpses from the women who were still alive.^[150] Gisella Perl, a Romanian-Jewish gynecologist and inmate of the women’s camp, wrote in 1948:

There was one latrine for thirty to thirty-two thousand women and we were permitted to use it only at certain hours of the day. We stood in line to get in to this tiny building, knee-deep in human excrement. As we all suffered from dysentry, we could barely wait until our turn came, and soiled our ragged clothes, which never came off our bodies, thus adding to the horror of our existence by the terrible smell that surrounded us like a cloud. The latrine consisted of a deep ditch with planks thrown across it at certain intervals. We squatted on those planks like birds perched on a telegraph wire, so close together that we could not help soiling one another.^[152]

Langefeld was succeeded as Lagerführerin in October 1942 by SS Oberaufseherin Maria Mandl, who developed a reputation for cruelty. Höss hired men to oversee the female supervisors, first SS Obersturmführer Paul Müller, then SS Hauptsturmführer Franz Hössler.^[153] Mandl and Hössler were executed after the war. Sterilization experiments were carried out in barracks 30 by a German gynecologist, Carl Clauberg, and another German doctor, Horst Schumann.^[150]

Medical experiments, block 10

German doctors performed a variety of experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz. SS doctors tested the efficacy of X-rays as a sterilization device by administering large doses to female prisoners. Carl Clauberg injected chemicals into women’s uteruses in an effort to glue them shut. Prisoners were infected with spotted fever for vaccination research and exposed to toxic substances to study the effects.^[154] In one experiment, Bayer—then part of IG Farben—paid RM 150 each for 150 female inmates from Auschwitz (the camp had asked for RM 200 per woman), who were transferred to a Bayer facility to test an anesthetic. A Bayer employee wrote to Rudolf Höss: «The transport of 150 women arrived in good condition. However, we were unable to obtain conclusive results because they died during the experiments. We would kindly request that you send us another group of women to the same number and at the same price.» The Bayer research was led at Auschwitz by Helmuth Vetter of Bayer/IG Farben, who was also an Auschwitz physician and SS captain, and by Auschwitz physicians Friedrich Entress and Eduard Wirths.^[155]

The most infamous doctor at Auschwitz was Josef Mengele, the «Angel of Death», who worked in Auschwitz II from 30 May 1943, at first in the gypsy family camp.^[156] Interested in performing research on identical twins, dwarfs, and those with hereditary disease, Mengele set up a kindergarten in barracks 29 and 31 for children he was experimenting on, and for all Romani children under six, where they were given better food rations.^[157] From May 1944, he would select twins and dwarfs from among the new arrivals during «selection»,^[158] reportedly calling for twins with «Zwillinge heraus!» («twins step forward!»).^[159] He and other doctors (the latter prisoners) would measure the twins’ body parts, photograph them, and subject them to dental, sight and hearing tests, x-rays, blood tests, surgery, and blood transfusions between them.^[160] Then he would have them killed and dissected.^[158] Kurt Heissmeyer, another German doctor and SS officer, took 20 Polish Jewish children from Auschwitz to use in pseudoscientific experiments at the Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg, where he injected them with the tuberculosis bacilli to test a cure for tuberculosis. In April 1945, the children were murdered by hanging to conceal the project.^[161]

A Jewish skeleton collection was obtained from among a pool of 115 Jewish inmates, chosen for their perceived stereotypical racial characteristics. Rudolf Brandt and Wolfram Sievers, general manager of the Ahnenerbe (a Nazi research institute), delivered the skeletons to the collection of the Anatomy Institute at the Reichsuniversität Straßburg in Alsace-Lorraine. The collection was sanctioned by Heinrich Himmler and under the direction of August Hirt. Ultimately 87 of the inmates were shipped to Natzweiler-Struthof and murdered in August 1943.^[162] Brandt and Sievers were executed in 1948 after being convicted during the Doctors’ trial, part of the Subsequent Nuremberg trials.^[163]

Punishment, block 11

Prisoners could be beaten and killed by guards and kapos for the slightest infraction of the rules. Polish historian Irena Strzelecka writes that kapos were given nicknames that reflected their sadism: «Bloody», «Iron», «The Strangler», «The Boxer».^[164] Based on the 275 extant reports of punishment in the Auschwitz archives, Strzelecka lists common infractions: returning a second time for food at mealtimes, removing your own gold teeth to buy bread, breaking into the pigsty to steal the pigs’ food, putting your hands in your pockets.^[165]

Flogging during roll-call was common. A flogging table called «the goat» immobilized prisoners’ feet in a box, while they stretched themselves across the table. Prisoners had to count out the lashes—»25 mit besten Dank habe ich erhalten» («25 received with many thanks»)— and if they got the figure wrong, the flogging resumed from the beginning.^[165] Punishment by «the post» involved tying prisoners hands behind their backs with chains attached to hooks, then raising the chains so the prisoners were left dangling by the wrists. If their shoulders were too damaged afterwards to work, they might be sent to the gas chamber. Prisoners were subjected to the post for helping a prisoner who had been beaten, and for picking up a cigarette butt.^[166] To extract information from inmates, guards would force their heads onto the stove, and hold them there, burning their faces and eyes.^[167]

Known as block 13 until 1941, block 11 of Auschwitz I was the prison within the prison, reserved for inmates suspected of resistance activities.^[168] Cell 22 in block 11 was a windowless standing cell (Stehbunker). Split into four sections, each section measured less than 1.0 m² (11 sq ft) and held four prisoners, who entered it through a hatch near the floor. There was a 5 cm x 5 cm vent for air, covered by a perforated sheet. Strzelecka writes that prisoners might have to spend several nights in cell 22; Wiesław Kielar spent four weeks in it for breaking a pipe.^[169] Several rooms in block 11 were deemed the Polizei-Ersatz-Gefängnis Myslowitz in Auschwitz (Auschwitz branch of the police station at Mysłowice).^[170] There were also Sonderbehandlung cases («special treatment») for Poles and others regarded as dangerous to Nazi Germany.^[171]

Death wall

The courtyard between blocks 10 and 11, known as the «death wall», served as an execution area, including for Poles in the General Government area who had been sentenced to death by a criminal court.^[171] The first executions, by shooting inmates in the back of the head, took place at the death wall on 11 November 1941, Poland’s National Independence Day. The 151 accused were led to the wall one at a time, stripped naked and with their hands tied behind their backs. Danuta Czech noted that a «clandestine Catholic mass» was said the following Sunday on the second floor of Block 4 in Auschwitz I, in a narrow space between bunks.^[172]

An estimated 4,500 Polish political prisoners were executed at the death wall, including members of the camp resistance. An additional 10,000 Poles were brought to the camp to be executed without being registered. About 1,000 Soviet prisoners of war died by execution, although this is a rough estimate. A Polish government-in-exile report stated that 11,274 prisoners and 6,314 prisoners of war had been executed.^[173] Rudolf Höss wrote that «execution orders arrived in an unbroken stream».^[170] According to SS officer Perry Broad, «[s]ome of these walking skeletons had spent months in the stinking cells, where not even animals would be kept, and they could barely manage to stand straight. And yet, at that last moment, many of them shouted ‘Long live Poland’, or ‘Long live freedom’.»^[174] The dead included Colonel Jan Karcz and Major Edward Gött-Getyński, executed on 25 January 1943 with 51 others suspected of resistance activities. Józef Noji, the Polish long-distance runner, was executed on 15 February that year.^[175] In October 1944, 200 Sonderkommando were executed for their part in the Sonderkommando revolt.^[176]

Family camps

Gypsy family camp

A separate camp for the Roma, the Zigeunerfamilienlager («Gypsy family camp»), was set up in the BIIe sector of Auschwitz II-Birkenau in February 1943. For unknown reasons, they were not subject to selection and families were allowed to stay together. The first transport of German Roma arrived on 26 February that year. There had been a small number of Romani inmates before that; two Czech Romani prisoners, Ignatz and Frank Denhel, tried to escape in December 1942, the latter successfully, and a Polish Romani woman, Stefania Ciuron, arrived on 12 February 1943 and escaped in April.^[178] Josef Mengele, the Holocaust’s most infamous physician, worked in the gypsy family camp from 30 May 1943 when he began his work in Auschwitz.^[156]

The Auschwitz registry (Hauptbücher) shows that 20,946 Roma were registered prisoners,^[179] and another 3,000 are thought to have entered unregistered.^[180] On 22 March 1943, one transport of 1,700 Polish Sinti and Roma was gassed on arrival because of illness, as was a second group of 1,035 on 25 May 1943.^[179] The SS tried to liquidate the camp on 16 May 1944, but the Roma fought them, armed with knives and iron pipes, and the SS retreated. Shortly after this, the SS removed nearly 2,908 from the family camp to work, and on 2 August 1944 gassed the other 2,897. Ten thousand remain unaccounted for.^[181]

Theresienstadt family camp

The SS deported around 18,000 Jews to Auschwitz from the Theresienstadt ghetto in Terezin, Czechoslovakia,^[182] beginning on 8 September 1943 with a transport of 2,293 male and 2,713 female prisoners.^[183] Placed in sector BIIb as a «family camp», they were allowed to keep their belongings, wear their own clothes, and write letters to family; they did not have their hair shaved and were not subjected to selection.^[182] Correspondence between Adolf Eichmann’s office and the International Red Cross suggests that the Germans set up the camp to cast doubt on reports, in time for a planned Red Cross visit to Auschwitz, that mass murder was taking place there.^[184] The women and girls were placed in odd-numbered barracks and the men and boys in even-numbered. An infirmary was set up in barracks 30 and 32, and barracks 31 became a school and kindergarten.^[182] The somewhat better living conditions were nevertheless inadequate; 1,000 members of the family camp were dead within six months.^[185] Two other groups of 2,491 and 2,473 Jews arrived from Theresienstadt in the family camp on 16 and 20 December 1943.^[186]

On 8 March 1944, 3,791 of the prisoners (men, women and children) were sent to the gas chambers; the men were taken to crematorium III and the women later to crematorium II.^[187] Some of the group were reported to have sung Hatikvah and the Czech national anthem on the way.^[188] Before they were murdered, they had been asked to write postcards to relatives, postdated to 25–27 March. Several twins were held back for medical experiments.^[189] The Czechoslovak government-in-exile initiated diplomatic manoeuvers to save the remaining Czech Jews after its representative in Bern received the Vrba-Wetzler report, written by two escaped prisoners, Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler, which warned that the remaining family-camp inmates would be gassed soon.^[190] The BBC also became aware of the report; its German service broadcast news of the family-camp murders during its women’s programme on 16 June 1944, warning: «All those responsible for such massacres from top downwards will be called to account.»^[191] The Red Cross visited Theresienstadt in June 1944 and were persuaded by the SS that no one was being deported from there.^[184] The following month, about 2,000 women from the family camp were selected to be moved to other camps and 80 boys were moved to the men’s camp; the remaining 7,000 were gassed between 10 and 12 July.^[192]

Selection and extermination process

Gas chambers

The first gassings at Auschwitz took place in early September 1941, when around 850 inmates—Soviet prisoners of war and sick Polish inmates—were killed with Zyklon B in the basement of block 11 in Auschwitz I. The building proved unsuitable, so gassings were conducted instead in crematorium I, also in Auschwitz I, which operated until December 1942. There, more than 700 victims could be killed at once.^[194] Tens of thousands were killed in crematorium I.^[49] To keep the victims calm, they were told they were to undergo disinfection and de-lousing; they were ordered to undress outside, then were locked in the building and gassed. After its decommissioning as a gas chamber, the building was converted to a storage facility and later served as an SS air raid shelter.^[195] The gas chamber and crematorium were reconstructed after the war. Dwork and van Pelt write that a chimney was recreated; four openings in the roof were installed to show where the Zyklon B had entered; and two of the three furnaces were rebuilt with the original components.^[31]

In early 1942, mass exterminations were moved to two provisional gas chambers (the «red house» and «white house», known as bunkers 1 and 2) in Auschwitz II, while the larger crematoria (II, III, IV, and V) were under construction. Bunker 2 was temporarily reactivated from May to November 1944, when large numbers of Hungarian Jews were gassed.^[197] In summer 1944 the combined capacity of the crematoria and outdoor incineration pits was 20,000 bodies per day.^[198] A planned sixth facility—crematorium VI—was never built.^[199]

From 1942, Jews were being transported to Auschwitz from all over German-occupied Europe by rail, arriving in daily convoys.^[200] The gas chambers worked to their fullest capacity from May to July 1944, during the Holocaust in Hungary.^[201] A rail spur leading to crematoria II and III in Auschwitz II was completed that May, and a new ramp was built between sectors BI and BII to deliver the victims closer to the gas chambers (images top right). On 29 April the first 1,800 Jews from Hungary arrived at the camp.^[202] From 14 May until early July 1944, 437,000 Hungarian Jews, half the pre-war population, were deported to Auschwitz, at a rate of 12,000 a day for a considerable part of that period.^[124] The crematoria had to be overhauled. Crematoria II and III were given new elevators leading from the stoves to the gas chambers, new grates were fitted, and several of the dressing rooms and gas chambers were painted. Cremation pits were dug behind crematorium V.^[202] The incoming volume was so great that the Sonderkommando resorted to burning corpses in open-air pits as well as in the crematoria.^[203]

Selection

According to Polish historian Franciszek Piper, of the 1,095,000 Jews deported to Auschwitz, around 205,000 were registered in the camp and given serial numbers; 25,000 were sent to other camps; and 865,000 were murdered soon after arrival.^[204] Adding non-Jewish victims gives a figure of 900,000 who were murdered without being registered.^[205]

During «selection» on arrival, those deemed able to work were sent to the right and admitted into the camp (registered), and the rest were sent to the left to be gassed. The group selected to die included almost all children, women with small children, the elderly, and others who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be fit for work.^[206] Practically any fault—scars, bandages, boils and emaciation—might provide reason enough to be deemed unfit.^[207] Children might be made to walk toward a stick held at a certain height; those who could walk under it were selected for the gas.^[208] Inmates unable to walk or who arrived at night were taken to the crematoria on trucks; otherwise the new arrivals were marched there.^[209] Their belongings were seized and sorted by inmates in the «Kanada» warehouses, an area of the camp in sector BIIg that housed 30 barracks used as storage facilities for plundered goods; it derived its name from the inmates’ view of Canada as a land of plenty.^[210]

Inside the crematoria

The crematoria consisted of a dressing room, gas chamber, and furnace room. In crematoria II and III, the dressing room and gas chamber were underground; in IV and V, they were on the ground floor. The dressing room had numbered hooks on the wall to hang clothes. In crematorium II, there was also a dissection room (Sezierraum).^[212] SS officers told the victims they had to take a shower and undergo delousing. The victims undressed in the dressing room and walked into the gas chamber; signs said «Bade» (bath) or «Desinfektionsraum» (disinfection room). A former prisoner testified that the language of the signs changed depending on who was being killed.^[213] Some inmates were given soap and a towel.^[214] A gas chamber could hold up to 2,000; one former prisoner said it was around 3,000.^[215]

The Zyklon B was delivered to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygiene Institute.^[216] After the doors were shut, SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber. The victims were usually dead within 10 minutes; Rudolf Höss testified that it took up to 20 minutes.^[217] Leib Langfus, a member of the Sonderkommando, buried his diary (written in Yiddish) near crematorium III in Auschwitz II. It was found in 1952, signed «A.Y.R.A»:^[218]

It would be difficult to even imagine that so many people would fit in such a small [room]. Anyone who did not want to go inside was shot […] or torn apart by the dogs. They would have suffocated from the lack of air within several hours. Then all the doors were sealed tight and the gas thrown in by way of a small hole in the ceiling. There was nothing more that the people inside could do. And so they only screamed in bitter, lamentable voices. Others complained in voices full of despair, and others still sobbed spasmodically and sent up a dire, heart-rending weeping. … And in the meantime, their voices grew weaker and weaker … Because of the great crowding, people fell one atop another as they died, until a heap arose consisting of five or six layers atop the other, reaching a height of one meter. Mothers froze in a seated position on the ground embracing their children in their arms, and husbands and wives died hugging each other. Some of the people made up a formless mass. Others stood in a leaning position, while the upper parts, from the stomach up, were in a lying position. Some of the people had turned completely blue under the influence of the gas, while others looks entirely fresh, as if they were asleep.^[219]

Use of corpses

Sonderkommando wearing gas masks dragged the bodies from the chamber. They removed glasses and artificial limbs and shaved off the women’s hair;^[217] women’s hair was removed before they entered the gas chamber at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, but at Auschwitz it was done after death.^[220] By 6 February 1943, the Reich Economic Ministry had received 3,000 kg of women’s hair from Auschwitz and Majdanek.^[220] The hair was first cleaned in a solution of sal ammoniac, dried on the brick floor of the crematoria, combed, and placed in paper bags.^[221] The hair was shipped to various companies, including one manufacturing plant in Bremen-Bluementhal, where workers found tiny coins with Greek letters on some of the braids, possibly from some of the 50,000 Greek Jews deported to Auschwitz in 1943.^[222] When they liberated the camp in January 1945, the Red Army found 7,000 kg of human hair in bags ready to ship.^[221]

Just before cremation, jewelry was removed, along with dental work and teeth containing precious metals.^[223] Gold was removed from the teeth of dead prisoners from 23 September 1940 onwards by order of Heinrich Himmler.^[224] The work was carried out by members of the Sonderkommando who were dentists; anyone overlooking dental work might themselves be cremated alive.^[223] The gold was sent to the SS Health Service and used by dentists to treat the SS and their families; 50 kg had been collected by 8 October 1942.^[224] By early 1944, 10–12 kg of gold were being extracted monthly from victims’ teeth.^[225]

The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators, and the ashes were buried, thrown in the Vistula river, or used as fertilizer. Any bits of bone that had not burned properly were ground down in wooden mortars.^[226]

Death toll

At least 1.3 million people were sent to Auschwitz between 1940 and 1945, and at least 1.1 million died.^[7] Overall 400,207 prisoners were registered in the camp: 268,657 male and 131,560 female.^[143] A study in the late 1980s by Polish historian Franciszek Piper, published by Yad Vashem in 1991,^[227] used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate that, of the 1.3 million sent to the camp, 1,082,000 had died there, a figure (rounded up to 1.1 million) that Piper regarded as a minimum.^[7] That figure came to be widely accepted.^[h]

The Germans tried to conceal how many they had murdered. In July 1942, according to Rudolf Höss’s post-war memoir, Höss received an order from Heinrich Himmler, via Adolf Eichmann’s office and SS commander Paul Blobel, that «[a]ll mass graves were to be opened and the corpses burned. In addition the ashes were to be disposed of in such a way that it would be impossible at some future time to calculate the number of corpses burned.»^[231]

Earlier estimates of the death toll were higher than Piper’s. Following the camp’s liberation, the Soviet government issued a statement, on 8 May 1945, that four million people had been murdered on the site, a figure based on the capacity of the crematoria.^[232] Höss told prosecutors at Nuremberg that at least 2,500,000 people had been gassed there, and that another 500,000 had died of starvation and disease.^[233] He testified that the figure of over two million had come from Eichmann.^[234] In his memoirs, written in custody, Höss wrote that Eichmann had given the figure of 2.5 million to Höss’s superior officer Richard Glücks, based on records that had been destroyed.^[235] Höss regarded this figure as «far too high. Even Auschwitz had limits to its destructive possibilities,» he wrote.^[236]

Nationality/ethnicity (Source: Franciszek Piper)[2]	Registered deaths (Auschwitz)	Unregistered deaths (Auschwitz)	Total
Jews	95,000	865,000	960,000
Ethnic Poles	64,000	10,000	74,000 (70,000–75,000)
Roma and Sinti	19,000	2,000	21,000
Soviet prisoners of war	12,000	3,000	15,000
Other Europeans: Soviet citizens (Byelorussians, Russians, Ukrainians), Czechs, Yugoslavs, French, Germans, Austrians	10,000–15,000	n/a	10,000–15,000
Total deaths in Auschwitz, 1940–1945	200,000–205,000	880,000	1,080,000–1,085,000

Around one in six Jews murdered in the Holocaust died in Auschwitz.^[237] By nation, the greatest number of Auschwitz’s Jewish victims originated from Hungary, accounting for 430,000 deaths, followed by Poland (300,000), France (69,000), Netherlands (60,000), Greece (55,000), Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (46,000), Slovakia (27,000), Belgium (25,000), Germany and Austria (23,000), Yugoslavia (10,000), Italy (7,500), Norway (690), and others (34,000).^[238] Timothy Snyder writes that fewer than one percent of the million Soviet Jews murdered in the Holocaust were murdered in Auschwitz.^[239] Of the at least 387 Jehovah’s Witnesses who were imprisoned at Auschwitz, 132 died in the camp.^[240]

Resistance, escapes, and liberation

Camp resistance, flow of information

• 

Information about Auschwitz became available to the Allies as a result of reports by Captain Witold Pilecki of the Polish Home Army^[243] who, as «Tomasz Serafiński» (serial number 4859),^[244] allowed himself to be arrested in Warsaw and taken to Auschwitz.^[243] He was imprisoned there from 22 September 1940^[245] until his escape on 27 April 1943.^[244] Michael Fleming writes that Pilecki was instructed to sustain morale, organize food, clothing and resistance, prepare to take over the camp if possible, and smuggle information out to the Polish military.^[243] Pilecki called his resistance movement Związek Organizacji Wojskowej (ZOW, «Union of Military Organization»).^[245]

The resistance sent out the first oral message about Auschwitz with Dr. Aleksander Wielkopolski, a Polish engineer who was released in October 1940.^[246] The following month the Polish underground in Warsaw prepared a report on the basis of that information, The camp in Auschwitz, part of which was published in London in May 1941 in a booklet, The German Occupation of Poland, by the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The report said of the Jews in the camp that «scarcely any of them came out alive». According to Fleming, the booklet was «widely circulated amongst British officials». The Polish Fortnightly Review based a story on it, writing that «three crematorium furnaces were insufficient to cope with the bodies being cremated», as did The Scotsman on 8 January 1942, the only British news organization to do so.^[247]

On 24 December 1941, the resistance groups representing the various prisoner factions met in block 45 and agreed to cooperate. Fleming writes that it has not been possible to track Pilecki’s early intelligence from the camp. Pilecki compiled two reports after he escaped in April 1943; the second, Raport W, detailed his life in Auschwitz I and estimated that 1.5 million people, mostly Jews, had been murdered.^[248] On 1 July 1942, the Polish Fortnightly Review published a report describing Birkenau, writing that «prisoners call this supplementary camp ‘Paradisal’, presumably because there is only one road, leading to Paradise». Reporting that inmates were being killed «through excessive work, torture and medical means», it noted the gassing of the Soviet prisoners of war and Polish inmates in Auschwitz I in September 1941, the first gassing in the camp. It said: «It is estimated that the Oswiecim camp can accommodate fifteen thousand prisoners, but as they die on a mass scale there is always room for new arrivals.»^[249]

The Polish government-in-exile in London first reported the gassing of prisoners in Auschwitz on 21 July 1942,^[250] and reported the gassing of Soviet POWs and Jews on 4 September 1942.^[251] In 1943, the Kampfgruppe Auschwitz (Combat Group Auschwitz) was organized within the camp with the aim of sending out information about what was happening.^[252] The Sonderkommando buried notes in the ground, hoping they would be found by the camp’s liberators.^[253] The group also smuggled out photographs; the Sonderkommando photographs, of events around the gas chambers in Auschwitz II, were smuggled out of the camp in September 1944 in a toothpaste tube.^[254]

According to Fleming, the British press responded, in 1943 and the first half of 1944, either by not publishing reports about Auschwitz or by burying them on the inside pages. The exception was the Polish Jewish Observer, a City and East London Observer supplement edited by Joel Cang, a former Warsaw correspondent for the Manchester Guardian. The British reticence stemmed from a Foreign Office concern that the public might pressure the government to respond or provide refuge for the Jews, and that British actions on behalf of the Jews might affect its relationships in the Middle East. There was similar reticence in the United States, and indeed within the Polish government-in-exile and the Polish resistance. According to Fleming, the scholarship suggests that the Polish resistance distributed information about the Holocaust in Auschwitz without challenging the Allies’ reluctance to highlight it.^[255]

Escapes, Auschwitz Protocols

From the first escape on 6 July 1940 of Tadeusz Wiejowski, at least 802 prisoners (757 men and 45 women) tried to escape from the camp, according to Polish historian Henryk Świebocki.^[256][i] He writes that most escapes were attempted from work sites outside the camp’s perimeter fence.^[258] Of the 802 escapes, 144 were successful, 327 were caught, and the fate of 331 is unknown.^[257]

Four Polish prisoners—Eugeniusz Bendera [pl] (serial number 8502), Kazimierz Piechowski (no. 918), Stanisław Gustaw Jaster [pl] (no. 6438), and Józef Lempart (no. 3419)—escaped successfully on 20 June 1942. After breaking into a warehouse, three of them dressed as SS officers and stole rifles and an SS staff car, which they drove out of the camp with the fourth handcuffed as a prisoner. They wrote later to Rudolf Höss apologizing for the loss of the vehicle.^[259] On 21 July 1944, Polish inmate Jerzy Bielecki dressed in an SS uniform and, using a faked pass, managed to cross the camp’s gate with his Jewish girlfriend, Cyla Cybulska, pretending that she was wanted for questioning. Both survived the war. For having saved her, Bielecki was recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations.^[260]

Jerzy Tabeau (no. 27273, registered as Jerzy Wesołowski) and Roman Cieliczko (no. 27089), both Polish prisoners, escaped on 19 November 1943; Tabeau made contact with the Polish underground and, between December 1943 and early 1944, wrote what became known as the Polish Major’s report about the situation in the camp.^[261] On 27 April 1944, Rudolf Vrba (no. 44070) and Alfréd Wetzler (no. 29162) escaped to Slovakia, carrying detailed information to the Slovak Jewish Council about the gas chambers. The distribution of the Vrba-Wetzler report, and publication of parts of it in June 1944, helped to halt the deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. On 27 May 1944, Arnost Rosin (no. 29858) and Czesław Mordowicz (no. 84216) also escaped to Slovakia; the Rosin-Mordowicz report was added to the Vrba-Wetzler and Tabeau reports to become what is known as the Auschwitz Protocols.^[262] The reports were first published in their entirety in November 1944 by the United States War Refugee Board as The Extermination Camps of Auschwitz (Oświęcim) and Birkenau in Upper Silesia.^[263]

Bombing proposal

In January 1941 the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army and prime minister-in-exile, Władysław Sikorski, arranged for a report to be forwarded to Air Marshal Richard Pierse, head of RAF Bomber Command.^[264] Written by Auschwitz prisoners in or around December 1940, the report described the camp’s atrocious living conditions and asked the Polish government-in-exile to bomb it:

The prisoners implore the Polish Government to have the camp bombed. The destruction of the electrified barbed wire, the ensuing panic and darkness prevailing, the chances of escape would be great. The local population will hide them and help them to leave the neighbourhood. The prisoners are confidently awaiting the day when Polish planes from Great Britain will enable their escape. This is the prisoners unanimous demand to the Polish Government in London.^[265]

Pierse replied that it was not technically feasible to bomb the camp without harming the prisoners.^[264] In May 1944 Slovak rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandl suggested that the Allies bomb the rails leading to the camp.^[266] Historian David Wyman published an essay in Commentary in 1978 entitled «Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed», arguing that the United States Army Air Forces could and should have attacked Auschwitz. In his book The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust 1941–1945 (1984), Wyman argued that, since the IG Farben plant at Auschwitz III had been bombed three times between August and December 1944 by the US Fifteenth Air Force in Italy, it would have been feasible for the other camps or railway lines to be bombed too. Bernard Wasserstein’s Britain and the Jews of Europe (1979) and Martin Gilbert’s Auschwitz and the Allies (1981) raised similar questions about British inaction.^[267] Since the 1990s, other historians have argued that Allied bombing accuracy was not sufficient for Wyman’s proposed attack, and that counterfactual history is an inherently problematic endeavor.^[268]

Sonderkommando revolt

The Sonderkommando who worked in the crematoria were witnesses to the mass murder and were therefore regularly murdered themselves.^[270] On 7 October 1944, following an announcement that 300 of them were to be sent to a nearby town to clear away rubble—»transfers» were a common ruse for the murder of prisoners—the group, mostly Jews from Greece and Hungary, staged an uprising.^[271] They attacked the SS with stones and hammers, killing three of them, and set crematorium IV on fire with rags soaked in oil that they had hidden.^[272] Hearing the commotion, the Sonderkommando at crematorium II believed that a camp uprising had begun and threw their Oberkapo into a furnace. After escaping through a fence using wirecutters, they managed to reach Rajsko, where they hid in the granary of an Auschwitz satellite camp, but the SS pursued and killed them by setting the granary on fire.^[273]

By the time the rebellion at crematorium IV had been suppressed, 212 members of the Sonderkommando were still alive and 451 had been killed.^[274] The dead included Zalmen Gradowski, who kept notes of his time in Auschwitz and buried them near crematorium III; after the war, another Sonderkommando member showed the prosecutors where to dig.^[275] The notes were published in several formats, including in 2017 as From the Heart of Hell.^[276]

Evacuation and death marches

The last mass transports to arrive in Auschwitz were 60,000–70,000 Jews from the Łódź Ghetto, some 2,000 from Theresienstadt, and 8,000 from Slovakia.^[277] The last selection took place on 30 October 1944.^[198] On 1 or 2 November 1944, Heinrich Himmler ordered the SS to halt the mass murder by gas.^[278][why?] On 25 November, he ordered that Auschwitz’s gas chambers and crematoria be destroyed. The Sonderkommando and other prisoners began the job of dismantling the buildings and cleaning up the site.^[279] On 18 January 1945, Engelbert Marketsch, a German criminal transferred from Mauthausen, became the last prisoner to be assigned a serial number in Auschwitz, number 202499.^[280]

According to Polish historian Andrzej Strzelecki, the evacuation of the camp was one of its «most tragic chapters».^[281] Himmler ordered the evacuation of all camps in January 1945, telling camp commanders: «The Führer holds you personally responsible for … making sure that not a single prisoner from the concentration camps falls alive into the hands of the enemy.»^[282] The plundered goods from the «Kanada» barracks, together with building supplies, were transported to the German interior. Between 1 December 1944 and 15 January 1945, over one million items of clothing were packed to be shipped out of Auschwitz; 95,000 such parcels were sent to concentration camps in Germany.^[283]

Beginning on 17 January, some 58,000 Auschwitz detainees (about two-thirds Jews)—over 20,000 from Auschwitz I and II and over 30,000 from the subcamps—were evacuated under guard, at first heading west on foot, then by open-topped freight trains, to concentration camps in Germany and Austria: Bergen-Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, Flossenburg, Gross-Rosen, Mauthausen, Dora-Mittelbau, Ravensbruck, and Sachsenhausen.^[284] Fewer than 9,000 remained in the camps, deemed too sick to move.^[285] During the marches, the SS shot or otherwise dispatched anyone unable to continue; «execution details» followed the marchers, killing prisoners who lagged behind.^[281] Peter Longerich estimated that a quarter of the detainees were thus killed.^[286] By December 1944 some 15,000 Jewish prisoners had made it from Auschwitz to Bergen-Belsen, where they were liberated by the British on 15 April 1945.^[287]

On 20 January, crematoria II and III were blown up, and on 23 January the «Kanada» warehouses were set on fire; they apparently burned for five days. Crematorium IV had been partly demolished after the Sonderkommando revolt in October, and the rest of it was destroyed later. On 26 January, one day ahead of the Red Army’s arrival, crematorium V was blown up.^[288]

Liberation

The first in the camp complex to be liberated was Auschwitz III, the IG Farben camp at Monowitz; a soldier from the 100th Infantry Division of the Red Army entered the camp around 9 am on Saturday, 27 January 1945.^[289] The 60th Army of the 1st Ukrainian Front (also part of the Red Army) arrived in Auschwitz I and II around 3 pm. They found 7,000 prisoners alive in the three main camps, 500 in the other subcamps, and over 600 corpses.^[290] Items found included 837,000 women’s garments, 370,000 men’s suits, 44,000 pairs of shoes,^[291] and 7,000 kg of human hair, estimated by the Soviet war crimes commission to have come from 140,000 people.^[221] Some of the hair was examined by the Forensic Science Institute in Kraków, where it was found to contain traces of hydrogen cyanide, the main ingredient of Zyklon B.^[292] Primo Levi described seeing the first four soldiers on horseback approach Auschwitz III, where he had been in the sick bay. They threw «strangely embarrassed glances at the sprawling bodies, at the battered huts and at us few still alive …»:^[293]

They did not greet us, nor did they smile; they seemed oppressed not only by compassion but by a confused restraint, which sealed their lips and bound their eyes to the funereal scene. It was that shame we knew so well, the shame that drowned us after the selections, and every time we had to watch, or submit to, some outrage: the shame the Germans did not know, that the just man experiences at another man’s crime; the feeling of guilt that such a crime should exist, that it should have been introduced irrevocably into the world of things that exist, and that his will for good should have proved too weak or null, and should not have availed in defence.^[294]

Georgii Elisavetskii, a Soviet soldier who entered one of the barracks, said in 1980 that he could hear other soldiers telling the inmates: «You are free, comrades!» But they did not respond, so he tried in Russian, Polish, German, Ukrainian. Then he used some Yiddish: «They think that I am provoking them. They begin to hide. And only when I said to them: ‘Do not be afraid, I am a colonel of Soviet Army and a Jew. We have come to liberate you’ … Finally, as if the barrier collapsed … they rushed toward us shouting, fell on their knees, kissed the flaps of our overcoats, and threw their arms around our legs.»^[291]

The Soviet military medical service and Polish Red Cross (PCK) set up field hospitals that looked after 4,500 prisoners suffering from the effects of starvation (mostly diarrhea) and tuberculosis. Local volunteers helped until the Red Cross team arrived from Kraków in early February.^[295] In Auschwitz II, the layers of excrement on the barracks floors had to be scraped off with shovels. Water was obtained from snow and from fire-fighting wells. Before more help arrived, 2,200 patients there were looked after by a few doctors and 12 PCK nurses. All the patients were later moved to the brick buildings in Auschwitz I, where several blocks became a hospital, with medical personnel working 18-hour shifts.^[296]

The liberation of Auschwitz received little press attention at the time; the Red Army was focusing on its advance toward Germany and liberating the camp had not been one of its key aims. Boris Polevoi reported on the liberation in Pravda on 2 February 1945 but made no mention of Jews;^[297] inmates were described collectively as «victims of Fascism».^[298] It was when the Western Allies arrived in Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, and Dachau in April 1945 that the liberation of the camps received extensive coverage.^[299]

After the war

Trials of war criminals

Only 789 Auschwitz staff, up to 15 percent, ever stood trial;^[8] most of the cases were pursued in Poland and the Federal Republic of Germany.^[300] According to Aleksander Lasik, female SS officers were treated more harshly than male; of the 17 women sentenced, four received the death penalty and the others longer prison terms than the men. He writes that this may have been because there were only 200 women overseers, and therefore they were more visible and memorable to the inmates.^[301]

Camp commandant Rudolf Höss was arrested by the British on 11 March 1946 near Flensburg, northern Germany, where he had been working as a farmer under the pseudonym Franz Lang. He was imprisoned in Heide, then transferred to Minden for interrogation, part of the British occupation zone. From there he was taken to Nuremberg to testify for the defense in the trial of SS-Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner. Höss was straightforward about his own role in the mass murder and said he had followed the orders of Heinrich Himmler.^[302][j] Extradited to Poland on 25 May 1946,^[303] he wrote his memoirs in custody, first published in Polish in 1951 then in German in 1958 as Kommandant in Auschwitz.^[304] His trial before the Supreme National Tribunal in Warsaw opened on 11 March 1947; he was sentenced to death on 2 April and hanged in Auschwitz I on 16 April, near crematorium I.^[305]

On 25 November 1947, the Auschwitz trial began in Kraków, when Poland’s Supreme National Tribunal brought to court 40 former Auschwitz staff, including commandant Arthur Liebehenschel, women’s camp leader Maria Mandel, and camp leader Hans Aumeier. The trials ended on 22 December 1947, with 23 death sentences, seven life sentences, and nine prison sentences ranging from three to 15 years. Hans Münch, an SS doctor who had several former prisoners testify on his behalf, was the only person to be acquitted.^[306]

Other former staff were hanged for war crimes in the Dachau Trials and the Belsen Trial, including camp leaders Josef Kramer, Franz Hössler, and Vinzenz Schöttl; doctor Friedrich Entress; and guards Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath.^[307] Bruno Tesch and Karl Weinbacher, the owner and chief executive officer of the firm Tesch & Stabenow, one of the suppliers of Zyklon B, were arrested by the British after the war and executed for knowingly supplying the chemical for use on humans.^[308] The 180-day Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, held in West Germany from 20 December 1963 to 20 August 1965, tried 22 defendants, including two dentists, a doctor, two camp adjudants and the camp’s pharmacist. The 700-page indictment, presenting the testimony of 254 witnesses, was accompanied by a 300-page report about the camp, Nationalsozialistische Konzentrationslager, written by historians from the Institut für Zeitgeschichte in Germany, including Martin Broszat and Helmut Krausnick. The report became the basis of their book, Anatomy of the SS State (1968), the first comprehensive study of the camp and the SS. The court convicted 19 of the defendants, giving six of them life sentences and the others between three and ten years.^[309] East Germany also held trials against several former staff members of Auschwitz. One of the defendants they tried was Horst Fischer. Fischer, one of the highest ranking SS physicians in the camp, had personally selected at least 75,000 men, women, and children to be gassed. He was arrested in 1965. The following year, he was convicted of crimes against humanity, sentenced to death, and guillotined. Fischer was the highest-ranking SS physician from Auschwitz to ever be tried by a German court.^[310]

Legacy

In the decades since its liberation, Auschwitz has become a primary symbol of the Holocaust. Historian Timothy D. Snyder attributes this to the camp’s high death toll and «unusual combination of an industrial camp complex and a killing facility», which left behind far more witnesses than single-purpose killing facilities such as Chełmno or Treblinka.^[311] In 2005 the United Nations General Assembly designated 27 January, the date of the camp’s liberation, as International Holocaust Remembrance Day.^[312] Helmut Schmidt visited the site in November 1977, the first West German chancellor to do so, followed by his successor, Helmut Kohl, in November 1989.^[313] In a statement on the 50th anniversary of the liberation, Kohl said that «[t]he darkest and most awful chapter in German history was written at Auschwitz.»^[314] In January 2020, world leaders gathered at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem to commemorate the 75th anniversary.^[315] It was the city’s largest-ever political gathering, with over 45 heads of state and world leaders, including royalty.^[316] At Auschwitz itself, Reuven Rivlin and Andrzej Duda, the presidents of Israel and Poland, laid wreaths.^[317]

Notable memoirists of the camp include Primo Levi, Elie Wiesel, and Tadeusz Borowski.^[237] Levi’s If This is a Man, first published in Italy in 1947 as Se questo è un uomo, became a classic of Holocaust literature, an «imperishable masterpiece».^[318][k] Wiesel wrote about his imprisonment at Auschwitz in Night (1960) and other works, and became a prominent spokesman against ethnic violence; in 1986, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.^[320] Camp survivor Simone Veil was elected President of the European Parliament, serving from 1979 to 1982.^[321] Two Auschwitz victims—Maximilian Kolbe, a priest who volunteered to die by starvation in place of a stranger, and Edith Stein, a Jewish convert to Catholicism—were named saints of the Catholic Church.^[322]

In 2017, a Körber Foundation survey found that 40 percent of 14-year-olds in Germany did not know what Auschwitz was.^[323][324] The following year a survey organized by the Claims Conference, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and others found that 41 percent of 1,350 American adults surveyed, and 66 percent of millennials, did not know what Auschwitz was, while 22 percent said they had never heard of the Holocaust.^[325] A CNN-ComRes poll in 2018 found a similar situation in Europe.^[326]

Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum

On 2 July 1947, the Polish government passed a law establishing a state memorial to remember «the martyrdom of the Polish nation and other nations in Oswiecim».^[327] The museum established its exhibits at Auschwitz I; after the war, the barracks in Auschwitz II-Birkenau had been mostly dismantled and moved to Warsaw to be used on building sites. Dwork and van Pelt write that, in addition, Auschwitz I played a more central role in the persecution of the Polish people, in opposition to the importance of Auschwitz II to the Jews, including Polish Jews.^[328] An exhibition opened in Auschwitz I in 1955, displaying prisoner mug shots; hair, suitcases, and shoes taken from murdered prisoners; canisters of Zyklon B pellets; and other objects related to the killings.^[329] UNESCO added the camp to its list of World Heritage Sites in 1979.^[330] All the museum’s directors were, until 1990, former Auschwitz prisoners. Visitors to the site have increased from 492,500 in 2001, to over one million in 2009,^[331] to two million in 2016.^[332]

There have been protracted disputes over the perceived Christianization of the site. Pope John Paul II celebrated mass over the train tracks leading to Auschwitz II-Birkenau on 7 June 1979^[333] and called the camp «the Golgotha of our age», referring to the crucifixion of Jesus.^[334] More controversy followed when Carmelite nuns founded a convent in 1984 in a former theater outside the camp’s perimeter, near block 11 of Auschwitz I,^[335] after which a local priest and some survivors erected a large cross—one that had been used during the pope’s mass—behind block 11 to commemorate 152 Polish inmates shot by the Germans in 1941.^[336][337] After a long dispute, Pope John Paul II intervened and the nuns moved the convent elsewhere in 1993.^[338] The cross remained, triggering the «War of the Crosses», as more crosses were erected to commemorate Christian victims, despite international objections. The Polish government and Catholic Church eventually agreed to remove all but the original.^[339]

On 4 September 2003, despite a protest from the museum, three Israeli Air Force F-15 Eagles performed a fly-over of Auschwitz II-Birkenau during a ceremony at the camp below. All three pilots were descendants of Holocaust survivors, including the man who led the flight, Major-General Amir Eshel.^[340] On 27 January 2015, some 300 Auschwitz survivors gathered with world leaders under a giant tent at the entrance to Auschwitz II to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the camp’s liberation.^[341][l]

Museum curators consider visitors who pick up items from the ground to be thieves, and local police will charge them as such; the maximum penalty is a 10-year prison sentence.^[343] In 2017 two British youths from the Perse School were fined in Poland after picking up buttons and shards of decorative glass in 2015 from the «Kanada» area of Auschwitz II, where camp victims’ personal effects were stored.^[344] The 16 ft (4.9 m) Arbeit Macht Frei sign over the main camp’s gate was stolen in December 2009 by a Swedish former neo-Nazi and two Polish men. The sign was later recovered.^[345]

In 2018 the Polish government passed an amendment to its Act on the Institute of National Remembrance, making it a criminal offence to violate the «good name» of Poland by accusing it of crimes committed by Germany in the Holocaust, which would include referring to Auschwitz and other camps as «Polish death camps».^[346] Staff at the museum were accused by nationalist media in Poland of focusing too much on the fate of the Jews in Auschwitz at the expense of ethnic Poles. The brother of the museum’s director, Piotr Cywiński, wrote that Cywiński had experienced «50 days of incessant hatred».^[347] After discussions with Israel’s prime minister, amid international concern that the new law would stifle research, the Polish government adjusted the amendment so that anyone accusing Poland of complicity would be guilty only of a civil offence.^[348]

See also

Sources

Notes

Citations

Works cited

Further reading

External links

• Drone footage, 2015 on YouTube
• Google Earth
• Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.
• «Auschwitz». United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
• «The Auschwitz Album». Yad Vashem.
• Auschwitz-Birkenau photographs by Bill Hunt.

Ворота в бывшем концлагере Аушвиц I

Поскольку в этом блоге неоднократно будет вспоминаться самый знаменитый в мире концлагерь, нужно сразу прояснить терминологию. Название этого исторического места у всех на слуху (надеюсь), но вот употребляют его у нас не всегда корректно.

Итак, что же такое Освенцим, а что — Аушвиц?

Освенцим — это небольшой городок на юге Польше, в 60 километрах от Кракова. Географически Освенцим расположен на самом западе исторического региона Галиция; совсем недалеко отcюда начинается регион Силезия. Польское название города — Oświęcim (читается примерно как «Ощвенчим»). На сегодняшний день в Освенциме живёт 40 тысяч человек, тут есть старый город с замком и даже одно высшее учебное заведение.

Замок в Освенциме

Освенцим был в средневековье важным торговым городом. Немецкие купцы называли его на немецкий манер — Аушвиц (Auschwitz). Во время раздела Польши, с 1772 по 1918 гг., провинция Галиция (а вместе с ней и Освенцим) входила в состав Австро-Венгерской империи, где немецкий язык был официальным. Немецкое название города было в ходу наряду с польским — например, на двуязычных картах империи указывались они оба.

С 1918 по 1939 гг., во время независимости Польской республики между двумя мировыми войнами, город назывался по-польски. В сентябре 1939 года немецкие войска атаковали Польшу, после чего часть оккупированных земель были присоединены к Рейху. Так случилось и с Освенцимом, который стал частью Германии с 1939 г. по начало 1945 г. Интересно то, что город вошёл в состав Рейха вместе с Силезией — промышленным регионом, частью которого Освенцим формально не является. Остальная часть Галиции вместе с Краковом не были присоединены к Германии (эта часть Польши вошла в состав государства-сателлита Рейха — Генерального губернаторства).

Несложно догадаться, какое название использовали немцы для своего свежеприобретённого города. По ряду разных причин именно недалеко от этого города нацисты построили крупнейший в истории человечества концентрационный лагерь и лагерь смерти под названием Аушвиц. Точнее, это был целый комплекс из нескольких десятков концлагерей. Главные корпуса лагеря составляли Аушвиц I, а гигантский по площади лагерь в полях, на которых были возведены многочисленные бараки для узников, газовые камеры и крематории для немедленного уничтожения прибывающих со всей Европы эшелонов с евреями, назывался Аушвиц II (Биркенау). Чтобы было проще запомнить — ворота в Аушвиц I были украшены известной своей циничностью надписью Arbeit macht frei («труд освобождает», см. фото в начале поста). Так называемые «ворота смерти» в лагере Биркенау (Аушвиц II) выглядят совсем по-другому, но тоже хорошо знакомы нам по многочисленным фильмам и фотографиям.

Ворота в концлагере Аушвиц-Биркенау.

После освобождения Польши советскими войсками город Освенцим снова стал называться по-польски. Как в Советском Союзе, так и в Польше концлагерь Аушвиц также стали называть Освенцимом, хотя это и было не совсем корректно. Название этого символа нацистских преступлений и Холокоста оказалось живучим — созданный в 1947 году мемориальный комплекс получил официальное название Государственный музей Освенцим-Бжезинка. И только в 1999 г. мемориал был официально переименован в Государственный музей Аушвиц-Биркенау в Освенциме. Вместе с переименованием музея постепенно изменилась традиция в публицистике. Сегодня мало кто в Польше называет концлагерь Освенцимом — только Аушвиц или Аушвиц-Биркенау.

В русскоязычной традиции тоже постепенно происходит этот изменение. Историки, которые занимаются концлагерем и опираются на зарубежные материалы, всё чаще используют название Аушвиц. Конечно, много времени пройдёт ещё до тех пор, когда в популярных представлениях термин концлагерь Аушвиц полностью вытеснит понятие концлагерь Освенцим — сейчас по результатам запроса в гугле второй вариант в два раза популярнее.

Тем не менее, запоминайте: Освенцим — это небольшой польский город, а Аушвиц — комплекс нацистских концлагерей. Не путайте и объясняйте это окружающим.

PS: В подобной «работе над ошибками» нет ничего нового. После освобождения концлагеря в советской прессе число его жертв оценивалось в 4 миллиона человек. Это представление тоже было довольно живучим, однако дальнейшее изучение исторических данных дало основание полагать, что число было сильно завышено. Число жертв концлагеря и лагеря смерти сейчас оценивается в приблизительно 1,1 млн человек. Точнее вычислить не представляется возможным в силу ряда методологических проблем. Однако ни в одной серьёзной публикации (вне зависимости от языка) старая оценка больше не используется.

Смотреть что такое ОСВЕНЦИМ в других словарях:

Немецко-фашистский концентрационный лагерь Аушвиц-Биркенау (Auschwitz-Birkenau), известный также под названием Освенцим (Oswiecim), был создан по приказу, подписанному 27 апреля 1940 года рейхсфюрером СС Генрихом Гиммлером, в апреле — мае 1940 года на оккупированной гитлеровцами территории Польши близ города Освенцим во время Второй мировой войны.

Лагерь находился в болотистой местности у слияния Вислы и ее притока Солы, в 60 километрах западнее Кракова.

Во время оккупации Освенцим получил немецкое название «Аушвиц», которое стало также названием лагеря — Konzentrationslager Auschwitz.

Непосредственным поводом к основанию лагеря стали массовые аресты немецкой полицией поляков и связанное с этим переполнение тюрем. Первый эшелон с польскими политзаключёнными, насчитывавший 728 узников, прибыл в лагерь 14 июня 1940 года. Этот день считается датой начала функционирования лагеря.

За почти пять лет существования функции лагеря претерпели значительные изменения. Создавался он как карантинный лагерь, но сразу стал концентрационным (местом медленного убийства вследствие создания нечеловеческих условий содержания и голодания), а начиная с октября 1942 года, стал еще и «лагерем смерти» (местом массового уничтожения людей).

Первоначально лагерь занимал 22 кирпичных здания (бывшие казармы польской армии), но со временем расширился и стал базой для целой сети новых лагерей. Причиной тому послужило то, что лагерь находился почти в самом центре оккупированной немцами Европы, а также удобное железнодорожное сообщение.

Немцы выселили жителей части Освенцима и восьми близлежащих деревень, на территории которых расположили лагерь. В городе и его окрестностях было снесено 1,2 тысячи домов и усадеб. Вблизи лагеря были организованы разные подсобные хозяйства, мастерские, склады, канторы и казармы для лагерного гарнизона. Часть отобранных у жителей зданий были предназначены для офицеров и младшего командного состава лагерного гарнизона СС, которые нередко здесь проживали со своими семьями, а также для семей немецких переселенцев, служащих и полицейских. Существующие здесь довоенные предприятия были переданы немцам, которые переориентировали их производство для нужд военной экономики Третьего рейха.

В Аушвице одновременно находилось до 250 тысяч узников различных национальностей.

Трудности в управлении таким большим лагерным комплексом привели к его формальному разделению 22 ноября 1943 года на три автономных лагеря — Аушвиц I, Аушвиц II-Биркенау, Аушвиц III-Мановиц. В комплекс входили также несколько десятков подсобных лагерей, расположенных в радиусе нескольких сотен километров от него.

Первый и старейший лагерь, созданный в 1940 году, стал называться Аушвиц I (Освенцим I). Он был «главным лагерем» (рассчитан на 12-20 тысяч узников). Второй лагерь, получивший название Аушвиц II, также известен как Биркенау («лагерь смерти»). Он был самым большим в комплексе лагерей Аушвиц (в 1944 году в нем пребывало более 90 тысяч узников). Его строительство началось осенью 1941 года, на территории деревни Бжезинка, в трех километрах от Освенцима.

Площадь этого лагеря составляла около 175 гектаров, она была застроена более чем 300 бараками. На территории Биркенау гитлеровцы построили четыре крематория с газовыми камерами, а также две временные газовые камеры в переделанных для этих целей крестьянских домах. Концлагерь в Биркенау был местом массового уничтожения людей из Польши, СССР, Австрии, Бельгии, Чехословакии, Дании, Франции, Греции, Голландии, Югославии, Норвегии, Румынии, Италии, Венгрии и др.

Третий лагерь — Аушвиц III — Мановиц назывался также Буна (летом 1944 года в нём находилось более 11 тысяч узников). Он был учрежден в 1942 году в деревне Моновице, находящейся в шести километрах от Освенцима, вблизи завода по производству синтетической резины и бензина Буна-Верке, построенного во время войны немецким концерном ИГ Фарбениндустри. В ноябре 1944 года лагерь Буна стал самостоятельным лагерем и получил название концлагерь Мановиц. В его подчинении находилось большинство филиалов лагеря Аушвиц, которые были созданы в 1942-1944 годах.

В общей сложности существовало 47 подсобных лагерей и наружных рабочих бригад концлагеря Аушвиц, которые использовали рабский труд узников. Эти филиалы основывались, главным образом, возле немецких шахт, металлургических заводов и других предприятий Верхней Силезии, а также возле больших сельскохозяйственных ферм.

Все лагеря и филиалы комплекса Аушвиц немцы окружили вышками и колючей проволокой, через которую шёл ток высокого напряжения. На вышках за заключенными внимательно следили эсесовцы. Любые контакты с внешним миром карались смертью. Над воротами красовалась издевательская надпись Arbeit macht Frei («Работа делает свободным»).

Запретная зона выходила далеко за пределы огражденных колючей проволокой лагерей. Она занимала площадь около 40 квадратных километров (так называемая «зона интересов») вокруг лагерей Аушвиц I и Аушвиц II-Биркенау, и ее постоянно патрулировали эсэсовцы.

Гарнизон концлагеря Аушвиц составляли члены СС (Schutzstaffeln, «охранные отряды»), они управляли лагерем, были членами караульного гарнизона, принимали участие в массовом уничтожении евреев и в казнях узников. Поначалу лагерный гарнизон СС состоял исключительно из немцев. Позже в его состав также входили так называемые фольксдойче (граждане других государств, которые смогли доказать свое немецкое происхождение). За время существования концлагеря Аушвиц через него прошло более 8 тысяч эсэсовцев и надзирателей.

Узники в лагере находились в ужасных условиях. В течение нескольких месяцев после основания лагеря заключенные спали на соломенных матрасах на полу. Камеры были настолько переполнены, что они могли спать только на боку. В 1941 году появились трехэтажные нары, которые не улучшили условия. На каждом ярусе нар чаще всего размещалось по двое узников вместо одного.

Лагерная одежда была довольно тонкой и почти не защищала от холода. Белье менялось с промежутком в несколько недель, а иногда даже раз в месяц, что приводило к эпидемиям сыпного и брюшного тифа, а также чесотки.

Механизм смерти был разработан нацистами до мелочей. Ежедневно в Аушвиц прибывало со всей оккупированной Европы около 10 эшелонов с людьми. В каждом эшелоне было 40-50 вагонов. В каждом вагоне было от 50 до 100 человек.

Приехавших делили на четыре категории. Первая, составлявшая две трети прибывших, в течение нескольких часов отправлялась в газовые камеры, а затем их тела сжигались в крематориях. Умерщвление людей в газовых камерах производилось посредством пестицида на основе синильной кислоты, получившего название «Циклон Б». В эту группу входили те, кто был признан непригодным к работе, прежде всего — дети, старики, женщины.

Вторая группа отправлялась на промышленные предприятия различных компаний. Из этих людей более 340 тысяч скончались от болезней, истязаний и казней. Основу питания составляли, как правило, гнилые овощи. Такой «рацион» заключённые выдерживали в среднем три месяца.

Третья категория предназначалась для медицинских экспериментов. На живых людях изучались действия химических веществ, испытывались новейшие фармацевтические препараты. В качестве эксперимента несчастных заражали малярией, гепатитом и другими опасными заболеваниями. На здоровых людях нацистские врачи тренировались в проведении хирургических операций. Часто они кастрировали мужчин и стерилизовали женщин, в особенности молодых.

Четвертая часть узников — молодые женщины, отобранные нацистами для сексуальных утех, работы в качестве прислуги, а также для сортировки личных вещей заключённых.

Несмотря на террор в концлагере, начиная с 1940 года, действовала польская, а с 1943 года — тайная международная организация сопротивления. Борьба узников в лагере, главным образом, заключалась в спасении от смерти своих товарищей.

В конце 1944 года, перед наступлением Красной Армии, фашисты стали уничтожать следы своих преступлений: сжигали документы, некоторые объекты были разобраны или подорваны. 17-21 января 1945 года узники, которые имели силы идти, были эвакуированы в тыл Третьего рейха. 27 января 1945 года советские войска освободили около 7 тысяч узников лагеря, большинство из них были больны и очень сильно физически истощены.

По разным оценкам, в 1940-1945 годах в концлагере погибло, от 1,5 до 4 миллионов человек разных национальностей.

По приблизительным данным, в концлагере погибли 1,1 миллиона евреев, 140-150 тысяч поляков, 23 тысячи цыган, 15 тысяч советских военнопленных, 25 тысяч человек других национальностей.

Точное количество погибших так и не удалось установить, поскольку многие документы были уничтожены, а сами немцы не вели учет жертв, направляемых в газовые камеры сразу по прибытии. Как свидетельствуют документы Нюрнбергского трибунала, погибло 2,8 миллиона человек, 90 % из которых были евреи.

В 1947 году на территории концлагеря был создан музей Освенцим-Бжезинка. В 1967 году на территории концлагеря Биркенау был открыт памятник жертвам фашизма.

В 1979 году по предложению Польши территория бывшего лагеря была включена в список мирового наследия ЮНЕСКО. В 1999 году музей был переименован в Государственный музей Аушвиц — Биркенау в Освенциме.

По просьбе Польши в 2007 году название лагеря Освенцим в списке Всемирного наследия ЮНЕСКО было изменено на «немецкий нацистский концентрационный лагерь и лагерь смерти (1940-1945) Аушвиц-Биркенау».

Музей Аушвиц-Биркенау расположен на территории двух бывших концлагерей Аушвиц I и Аушвиц II- Биркенау, общей площадью 191 гектар. Он состоит из трех частей. Основная часть рассказывает об истории узников. В интернациональной представлены экспозиции тех стран, чьи граждане оказались в лагере. Третья часть посвящена истории Польши в годы Второй мировой войны.

Экспозиция СССР в музее была открыта в 1961 году. Она неоднократно модернизировалась, в последний раз — в январе 2005 года. После этого была закрыта. 27 января 2010 года в четырнадцатом бараке музея Аушвиц-Биркенау в Освенциме была открыта временная российская экспозиция «Освобождение концлагеря «Аушвиц». 27 января 2013 года в двухэтажном бараке под номером 14 открылась новая российская экспозиция. Выставка занимает площадь около 750 квадратных метров.

Материал подготовлен на основе информации РИА Новости и открытых источников

Координаты: 50°02′09″ с. ш. 19°10′42″ в. д. / 50.035833° с. ш. 19.178333° в. д. ^(G) (O)

Концентрацио́нный ла́герь Осве́нцим (Концентрационный лагерь Аушвиц: нем. Konzentrationslager Auschwitz, польск. Obóz Koncentracyjny Auschwitz; Концентрационный лагерь Биркенау: нем. Konzentrationslager Birkenau, польск. Obóz Koncentracyjny Birkenau, Концентрационный лагерь Аушвиц-Биркенау: нем. Konzentrationslager Auschwitz-Birkenau, польск. Obóz Koncentracyjny Auschwitz-Birkenau) — комплекс немецких концлагерей, располагавшийся в 1940—1945 годах на запад от Генерал-губернаторства, около города Освенцим, который в 1939 г. указом Гитлера был присоединён к территории Третьего рейха, в 60 км к западу от Кракова. В мировой практике принято использовать немецкое название «Аушвиц»^[1], а не польское «Освенцим», поскольку именно немецкое название использовалось нацистской администрацией. В советских и российских справочных изданиях^[2][3] и СМИ^[4][5] исторически преимущественно используется польское название, хотя немецкое постепенно входит в употребление^[6].

Около 1 300 000 человек, из которых около 1 000 000 составляли евреи, были умерщвлены в Освенциме в 1941—1945 годах^[7]. На территории лагеря в 1947 году был создан музей, который включён в список Всемирного наследия ЮНЕСКО.

Структура

Комплекс состоял из трёх основных лагерей: Аушвиц 1, Аушвиц 2 и Аушвиц 3.

Аушвиц 1

После того, как в 1939 году этот район Польши был занят немецкими войсками, Освенцим был переименован в Аушвиц. Первым концлагерем в Освенциме стал Аушвиц 1^[8], который впоследствии служил административным центром всего комплекса. Он был основан 20 мая 1940 года на основе кирпичных двух- и трёхэтажных строений бывших польских, а ранее австрийских казарм. В связи с тем, что было решено создать в Освенциме концентрационный лагерь, с прилегающей к нему территории было выселено польское население. Это происходило двумя этапами; первый имел место в июне 1940 года. Тогда было выселено около 2 тыс. людей, живших недалеко от бывших казарм польской армии и зданий Польской табачной монополии. Второй этап выселения — июль 1940 года, он охватил жителей улиц Короткая, Польная и Легионов. В ноябре того же года произошло третье выселение, оно коснулось района Засоле. Мероприятия по выселению продолжались и в 1941 году; в марте и апреле были выселены жители деревень Бабице, Буды, Райско, Бжезинка, Брощковице, Плавы и Харменже. Всего были выселены люди с территории в 40 км², которая была объявлена сферой интересов лагеря; в 1941—1943 годах здесь были созданы подсобные лагеря сельскохозяйственного профиля: рыбные хозяйства, птицеводческие и скотоводческие фермы.

Первая группа узников в составе 728 польских политических заключённых прибыла в лагерь 14 июня 1940 года. На протяжении двух лет количество заключённых варьировалось от 13 до 16 тысяч, а к 1942 году достигло 20 000 заключённых. СС отбирало некоторых заключённых, преимущественно немцев, для слежки за остальными. Заключённые лагеря делились на классы, что было визуально отражено нашивками на одежде. 6 дней в неделю, кроме воскресенья, заключённые были обязаны работать. Изматывающий график работ и скудная пища стали причиной многочисленных смертей. В лагере Аушвиц 1 существовали отдельные блоки, служившие для различных целей. В блоках 11 и 13 производились наказания для нарушителей правил лагеря. Людей по 4 человека помещали в так называемые «стоячие камеры» размером 90×90 см, где им приходилось стоять всю ночь. Более жёсткие меры подразумевали медленные убийства: провинившихся либо сажали в герметичную камеру, где они умирали от нехватки кислорода, либо просто морили голодом до смерти. Между блоками 10 и 11 находился пыточный двор, где заключённых пытали и расстреливали. Стена, у которой производился расстрел, была реконструирована после окончания войны.

3 сентября 1941 года по приказу заместителя коменданта лагеря оберштурмфюрера СС Карла Фрицша было проведено первое испытание травления газом Циклон Б в блоке 11, в результате которого погибло около 600 советских военнопленных и 250 других узников, в основном больных^[9]. Опыт был признан успешным, и один из бункеров был переконструирован в газовую камеру и крематорий. Камера функционировала с 1941 года по 1942 год, а затем её перестроили в бомбоубежище СС. Впоследствии камера и крематорий были воссозданы из оригинальных деталей и существуют по сей день в качестве памятника жестокости нацистов.

Аушвиц 2

Аушвиц 2 (также известный как Биркенау, или Бжезинка) — это то, что обычно подразумевают, говоря собственно об Освенциме. В нём, в одноэтажных деревянных бараках, содержались сотни тысяч евреев, поляков, русских, цыган и узников других национальностей. Число жертв этого лагеря составило более миллиона человек. Строительство этой части лагеря началось в октябре 1941 года. Всего было четыре строительных участка. В 1942 году отдали в эксплуатацию участок I (там помещались мужской и женский лагеря); в 1943—44 годах были отданы в эксплуатацию лагеря, находившиеся на строительном участке II (цыганский лагерь, мужской карантинный, мужской, мужской больничный, еврейский семейный лагерь, складские помещения и «Депотлагерь», то есть лагерь для венгерских евреев). В 1944 году приступили к застройке III строительного участка; в незаконченных бараках в июне и июле 1944 года жили еврейки, фамилии которых не были занесены в регистрационные лагерные книги. Лагерь этот тоже называли «Депотлагерь», а потом «Мексика». IV участок так и не был застроен.

Новые заключённые ежедневно прибывали на поездах в Аушвиц 2 со всей оккупированной Европы. Прибывших делили на четыре группы.

Первая группа, составлявшая примерно ¾ всех привезённых, отправлялась в газовые камеры в течение нескольких часов. В эту группу входили женщины, дети, старики и все те, кто не прошёл медкомиссию по полной пригодности к работе.

В Аушвице 2 было 4 газовые камеры и 4 крематория. Все четыре крематория вступили в строй в 1943 году. Точные сроки вступления в строй: 1 марта — крематорий I, 25 июня — крематорий II, 22 марта — крематорий III, 4 апреля — крематорий IV. Среднее число трупов, сожжённых за 24 часа с учетом трёхчасового перерыва в сутки для очистки печей в 30 печах первых двух крематориев равнялось 5 000, а в 16 печах крематориев I и II — 3 000.

Вторая группа заключённых отправлялась на рабскую работу на промышленные предприятия различных компаний. С 1940 года по 1945 годы в комплексе Освенцима были приписаны к фабрикам около 405 тысяч заключённых. Из них более 340 тысяч скончались от болезней и избиений, либо были казнены. Известен случай, когда немецкий промышленник Оскар Шиндлер спас около 1000 евреев, выкупив их для работ на своей фабрике. 300 женщин из этого списка по ошибке попали в Освенцим. Шиндлеру удалось вызволить их и увезти в Краков.

Третья группа, в основном близнецы и карлики, отправлялись на различные медицинские эксперименты, в частности к доктору Йозефу Менгеле, известному под прозвищем «ангел смерти».

Четвёртая группа, преимущественно женщины, отбирались в группу «Канада» для личного использования немцами в качестве прислуги и личных рабов, а также для сортировки личного имущества заключённых, прибывающих в лагерь. Название «Канада» было выбрано как издевка над польскими заключёнными — в Польше слово «Канада» часто использовалось как восклицание при виде ценного подарка. Раньше польские эмигранты часто отправляли подарки на родину из Канады.

Освенцим частично обслуживался заключёнными, которых периодически убивали и заменяли новыми. Особую роль играла так называемая «зондеркоманда» — заключенные, которые доставали тела из газовых камер и переносили их в крематорий.^[10] За всем следили около 6000 служащих СС.

К 1943 году в лагере сформировалась группа сопротивления, которая помогла некоторым заключённым бежать, а в октябре 1944 года группа заключенных из «зондеркоманды» разрушила один из крематориев.^[11] В связи с приближением советских войск администрация Освенцима начала эвакуацию заключённых в лагеря, расположенные на территории Германии. 25 января эсэсовцы подожгли 35 бараков-складов, которые были полны вещей, отобранных у евреев; их не успели вывезти.

Когда 27 января 1945 года советские солдаты заняли Освенцим, они нашли там около 7,5 тыс. выживших узников, а в частично уцелевших бараках-складах — 1 185 345 мужских и дамских костюмов, 43 255 пар мужской и женской обуви, 13 694 ковра, огромное количество зубных щёток и кисточек для бритья, а также другие мелкие предметы домашнего обихода. Более 58 тыс. заключённых были вывезены или убиты немцами.

Несколько евреев-заключенных из «зондеркоманды», в том числе лидер группы Сопротивления Залман Градовский, написали послания, которые они спрятали в тех ямах, в которых закапывали прах из крематориев. 9 таких записок были позднее найдены и опубликованы.^[10][12][13]

В память о жертвах лагеря в 1947 году Польша создала музей на территории Освенцима.

Аушвиц 3

Аушвиц 3 являлся группой из приблизительно 40 небольших лагерей, созданных при фабриках и шахтах вокруг общего комплекса. Крупнейшим из таких лагерей был Мановиц, берущий название от польской деревни, располагавшейся на его территории. Он начал функционировать в мае 1942 года и был приписан к компании IG Farben. Такие лагеря регулярно посещали доктора и отбирали слабых и больных для газовых камер Биркенау.

Центральное руководство в Берлине выдало 16 октября 1942 года приказ о строительстве в Освенциме псарни на 250 служебных собак; запланировано это было на широкую ногу и ассигновано 81000 марок. При строительстве объекта была принята во внимание точка зрения лагерного ветеринарного врача и приняты все меры к созданию хороших санитарных условий. Не забыли отвести для собак большую территорию с газонами, построили ветеринарную больницу и специальную кухню. Факт этот заслуживает особого внимания, если представить себе, что одновременно с этой заботой о животных лагерные власти относились с полным равнодушием к санитарно-гигиеническим условиям, в которых жили тысячи узников лагеря. Из воспоминаний коменданта Рудольфа Хёсса:

За всю историю Освенцима было совершено около 700 попыток побега, 300 из которых увенчались успехом, однако если кто-нибудь бежал, то всех его родственников арестовывали и отправляли в лагерь, а всех заключённых из его блока убивали. Это был весьма действенный метод препятствовать попыткам бегства. В 1996 году правительство Германии объявило 27 января, день освобождения Освенцима, официальным днём памяти жертв Холокоста.

История

• 1939 год, ноябрь — предоставление проекта будущего концлагеря в отчете инспектора полиции безопасности и службы безопасности оберфюрера СС Арпада Виганда
• 1940 год, 27 апреля — распоряжение рейхсфюрера СС Гиммлера о создании концлагеря в окрестности польского города Освенцим (Аушвитц)
• 1940 год, 20 мая — закладка лагеря по приказу Гиммлера на базе казарм польской армии. Первые 728 узников появились в Освенциме 14 июня 1940 года из тюрьмы в Тарнове, но перед этим из Заксенхаузена доставили 30 немецких узников, которые были уголовниками. Первым начальником лагеря стал Рудольф Хёсс^[14]. Его заместителем стал Карл Фрицш.
• 1941 год, март — распоряжение рейхсфюрера СС Гиммлера расширить лагерь до 30 000 заключенных, также в окрестности деревни Биркенау возвести лагерь на 100 000 военнопленных.
• 1941 год, 1 марта — первая инспекция Гиммлера в Освенцим. Им было отдано распоряжение о расширении существующего лагеря и организации лагеря в Бжезинке.
• 1941 год, август — рейхсфюрер СС Гиммлер приказывает коменданту Рудольфу Хёссу подготовить лагерь для массового уничтожения европейских евреев и разработать соответствующие методы умерщвления.
• 1941 год, 14 августа — в Освенциме погиб католический священник Максимилиан Мария Кольбе, добровольно пошедший на смерть ради спасения товарища по несчастью, сержанта Франтишека Гаёвничека. Впоследствии за этот подвиг Максимилиан Кольбе был причислен к лику святых мучеников.
• 1941 год, 3 сентября — по приказу Карла Фрицша в лагере запущена первая газовая камера. Результаты испытаний одобрены Рудольфом Хёссом.
• 1941 год, сентябрь — в Освенцим были доставлены первые советские военнопленные.
• 1941 год, октябрь — начато строительства Аушвитц 2 — Биркенау.
• 1942 год, январь — в Биркенау проводятся первые массовые убийства евреев (привезенных из Верхней Силезии).
• 1942 год, июль — начало строительства четырёх больших сооружений для массового уничтожения в Биркенау.
• 1942 год, 17 июля-18 июля — Гиммлер инспектирует Освенцим во второй раз и остаётся демонстрировать технологию умерщвления газом в Биркенау.
• 1943 год, октябрь — рабочими Аушвитц 2 завершено строительство лагеря Аушвитц 3 — Моновитц в непосредственной близости, с филиалом «Буна-Верке». (производство полимеров).
• 1943 год — начаты медицинские эксперименты над еврейками и цыганками под руководством гинеколога Карла Клауберга. В эксперименты входили ампутация матки и яичников, облучение, испытание препаратов по заказам фармацевтических фирм.
• 1943 год — начаты медицинские эксперименты над заключёнными под руководством доктора Йозефа Менгеле.
• 1943 год, март — июнь — запущены в эксплуатацию 2-я, 3-я, 4-я и 5-я газовые камеры и крематории в Биркенау.
• 1943 год, ноябрь — по предложению Освальда Поля (начальника главного административно-хозяйственного управления СС) лагерь в Освенциме был разделён на три части.
• 1944 год, май — в лагерь начинают приходить эшелоны с евреями из Венгрии, наиболее крупная операция по массовому уничтожению.
• 1944 год, август — Аушвитц (Освенцим) становится самым большим концлагерем третьего рейха, насчитывая 130 000 заключенных.
• 1944 год, 6 октября — восстание специального отряда в Аушвитц 2 — Биркенау.
• 1944 год, август — перед лицом наступающих советских войск, Гиммлер приказывает уничтожить всю газификацию, газовые камеры и соответствующие крематории. К этому времени в Освенциме насчитывалось от 1,2 млн до 4 млн жертв, в основном евреев.
• 1944 год, весна — третья инспекция Гиммлера, после которой он приказал ликвидировать всех цыган в лагере, предварительно отобрав работоспособных.
• 1945 год, 18 января — часть трудоспособных узников (58 тысяч человек) была эвакуирована вглубь германской территории маршами смерти.
• 1945 год, 27 января — советские войска под командованием маршала Конева вошли в Освенцим, в котором в тот момент находилось около 7,6 тыс. узников.
• 1947 год, апрель — у входа в главный крематорий был повешен первый комендант Освенцима — Рудольф Хёсс, выданный полякам британцами.
• 1967 год — на территории Биркенау был поставлен международный памятник его жертвам. Надписи на нём были выполнены на языке народов, представители которых были здесь замучены, в том числе и на русском языке.

После войны

После освобождения лагеря советскими войсками часть бараков и зданий Аушвиц 1 была использована как госпиталь для освобожденных узников. После этого часть лагеря была использована до 1947 года как тюрьма НКВД и Министерства общественной безопасности. Химический завод был передан польскому правительству и стал основой для развития химической промышленности региона.

После 1947 года польским правительством началось создание музея.

В ночь на пятницу 18 декабря 2009 года чугунная надпись «Arbeit macht frei» («Труд освобождает»), которая располагалась над входом в Аушвиц 1, была похищена и обнаружена через три дня. Она была распилена на три части и подготовлена к переправке в Швецию. Арестованы 5 мужчин, подозреваемых в этом преступлении^[15][16]. После похищения надпись была заменена копией, изготовленной во время реставрации оригинала в 2006 году.

Категории заключенных

• Евреи
• Цыгане
• участники движения Сопротивления (в основном, польские)
• Советские военнопленные
• Немецкие преступники и антисоциальные элементы
• Гомосексуалисты (по разным данным от 48 до 97 человек^[17]).

Узников концентрационных лагерей обозначали треугольниками («винкелями») разных цветов в зависимости от причины, по которой они попали в лагерь. Например, политических заключённых обозначали красными треугольниками, уголовников — зелёными, антиобщественных — чёрными, Свидетелей Иеговы — лиловыми, гомосексуалистов — розовыми. Евреям, помимо всего, следовало носить жёлтый треугольник; в сочетании с «винкелем» эти два треугольника образовывали шестиконечную звезду Давида^[18].

Лагерный жаргон

В этом разделе не хватает ссылок на источники информации. Информация должна быть проверяема, иначе она может быть поставлена под сомнение и удалена. Вы можете отредактировать эту статью, добавив ссылки на авторитетные источники. Эта отметка установлена 16 мая 2012.

• «канада» — склад с вещами убитых; существовало две «канады»: первая находилась на территории материнского лагеря (Аушвиц 1), вторая — в западной части в Биркенау;
• «капо» — узник, выполняющий административную работу и осуществляющий надзор за рабочей бригадой;
• «мусульманин(ка)» — узник, который находился в стадии крайнего истощения; они напоминали скелетов, их кости едва покрывала кожа, взгляд был затуманен, а общему физическому истощению сопутствовало и психическое;
• «организование» — найти способ раздобыть продукты, одежду, лекарства и другие предметы обихода не путём обкрадывания своих товарищей, а украв их тайком с немецких складов;
• «пойти на проволоку» — покончить жизнь самоубийством, дотронувшись до колючей проволоки под током высокого напряжения (нередко узник не успевал дойти до проволоки: его убивали часовые-эсэсовцы, нёсшие вахту на сторожевых вышках);
• «вылететь в трубу» — быть сожжённым в крематории.

Число жертв

Точное количество погибших в Освенциме установить невозможно, так как многие документы были уничтожены. Кроме того, немцы не вели учёт жертв, направляемых в газовые камеры непосредственно по прибытии. Имеющаяся в сети интернет-база данных погибших узников содержит 180 тысяч имён. Всего сохранились индивидуальные данные о 650 тысячах заключённых^[19].

Начиная с 1940 года, из оккупированных территорий и Германии в концентрационный лагерь Освенцим прибывало до 10 эшелонов с людьми в день. В эшелоне было 40—50, а иногда и более вагонов. В каждом вагоне находилось от 50 до 100 человек. Около 70 % всех привезённых евреев отправлялись в газовые камеры в течение нескольких часов^[20]. Функционировали мощные крематории для сжигания трупов, помимо них производилось сожжение тел в огромных количествах на специальных кострах. Приблизительная пропускная способность крематориев : № 1 (за 24 месяца) — 216 000 человек, № 2 (за 19 месяцев) — 1 710 000 человек, № 3 (за 18 месяцев существования) — 1 618 000 человек, № 4 (за 17 месяцев) — 765 000 человек, № 5 (за 18 месяцев) — 810 000 человек.

Современные историки сходятся во мнении, что в Освенциме было уничтожено от 1,1 до 1,6 миллиона человек, большинство из которых составляли евреи^[21]. Эта оценка получена косвенным путём, для чего проводилось изучение списков на депортацию и подсчёт данных о прибытии железнодорожных составов в Освенцим.

Французский историк Жорж Веллер в 1983 году одним из первых использовал данные о депортации, на их основе оценив количество убитых в Освенциме в 1 613 000 человек, 1 440 000 из которых составляли евреи и 146 000 — поляки. В более поздней, считающейся наиболее авторитетной на сегодня работе польского историка Францишка Пипера, приводится следующая оценка:

• 1 100 000 евреев
• 140 000—150 000 поляков
• 100 000 русских
• 23 000 цыган^[22].

Рудольф Хёсс, комендант Освенцима в 1940—1943 годах, в своём свидетельстве на Нюрнбергском трибунале оценил количество погибших в 2,5 миллиона человек, хотя утверждал, что точное количество ему неизвестно, так как он не вёл записей^[23]. Вот что он говорит в своих воспоминаниях:

Однако нужно принимать во внимание, что Хёссом не были указаны Австрия, Болгария, Югославия, Литва, Латвия, Норвегия, СССР, Италия и страны Африки.

Опыты над людьми

В лагере широко практиковались медицинские эксперименты и опыты. Изучались действия химических веществ на человеческий организм. Испытывались новейшие фармацевтические препараты. Заключённых искусственно заражали малярией, гепатитом и другими опасными заболеваниями в качестве эксперимента. Нацистские врачи тренировались в проведении хирургических операций на здоровых людях. Часто производилась кастрация мужчин и стерилизация женщин, в особенности молодых, сопровождавшаяся изъятием яичников.

По воспоминаниям Давида Сурес из Греции:

Освенцим в лицах

Известные узники

Погибшие в лагере

• Александр Бандера — украинский националистический деятель, младший брат Степана Бандеры
• Василий Бандера — украинский националистический деятель, младший брат Степана Бандеры
• Арпад Вейс — венгерский футболист и тренер.
• Иосиф (Юзеф) Ковальский — католический польский священник-салезианец, причисленный к лику святых мучеников.
• Максимилиан Кольбе — католический польский священник-францисканец, причисленный к лику святых мучеников.
• Сандро Фазини — русский и французский художник и фотограф.
• Илья Фондаминский — российский политический и общественный деятель, канонизированный Константинопольским патриархатом как святой мученик.

Выжившие

• Биро Даян — израильский военачальник.
• Франтишек Гаёвничек — узник, которого ценой собственной жизни спас Максимилиан Кольбе.
• Примо Леви — итальянский писатель.
• Витольд Пилецкий — польский деятель движения Сопротивления.
• Виктор Франкл — австрийский психиатр и психолог.
• Юзеф Циранкевич — польский политический деятель, многолетний премьер-министр ПНР.
• Тадеуш Боровский — польский поэт и прозаик.

Сотрудники СС

• Ганс Аумейер — с января 1942 года по 18 августа 1943 года занимал должность начальника лагеря.
• Стефан Барецки — с осени 1942 года до января 1945 года был начальником блока в мужском лагере в Биркенау.
• Рихард Баер — с 11 мая 1944 года комендант Освенцима, с 27 июля — начальник гарнизона CC.
• Карл Бишоф — с 1 октября 1941 года до осени 1944 года начальник строительства лагеря.
• Эдуард Виртс — с 6 сентября 1942 года врач гарнизона СС в лагере, проводил в 10 блоке исследования над раком и осуществлял операции на узниках, у которых хотя бы подозревался рак.
• Фриц Гартенштейн — в мае 1942 года был назначен командиром гарнизона СС лагеря.
• Гебгардт — до мая 1942 года командир СС в лагере.
• Франц Геслер — в 1940—1941 годах был начальником лагерной кухни.
• Франц-Иоганн Гофман — с декабря 1942 года второй начальник в Аушвиц 1, а затем начальник цыганского лагеря в Биркенау, в декабре 1943 года получил должность первого начальника лагеря Аушвиц 1.
• Максимилиан Грабнер — до 1 декабря 1943 года начальник политического отдела в лагере.
• Ирма Грезе — с марта 1943 года по март 1945 года старшая надзирательница.
• Освальд Кадук — с 1942 года до января 1945 года служил в лагере, где был сначала начальником блока, а позже начальником рапорта; принимал участие в селекции узников как в лагерной больнице в Аушвиц 1, так и в Биркенау.
• Бруно Китт — был главным врачом больницы в женском лагере Биркенау, где проводил селекции больных узниц для отправки их в газовые камеры.
• Карл Клауберг — гинеколог, по приказу Гиммлера проводил в лагере преступные опыты на узницах, изучая методы стерилизации.
• Йозеф Клер — с весны 1943 года до июля 1944 года возглавлял дезинфекционный отдел и проводил массовое уничтожение узников при помощи газа.
• Йозеф Крамер — с 8 мая по ноябрь 1944 года был комендантом лагеря Биркенау.
• Лангефельд Иоанна — в апреле-октябре 1942 года занимала пост начальника женского лагеря.
• Артур Либехеншель — с ноября 1943 года по май 1944 года был комендантом Аушвиц 1, возглавляя одновременно гарнизон этого лагеря.
• Мария Мандель — в 1942—1944 годах начальница женского лагеря.
• Молль Отто — в различное время занимал должность начальника крематориев, а также отвечал за сжигание трупов на открытом воздухе.
• Йозеф Менгеле — немецкий врач в Аушвиц-Биркенау. За 21 месяц своей работы в Освенциме заработал репутацию одного из самых опасных нацистов, получил кличку «Ангел Смерти». Лично встречал поезда узников, приезжавших в лагерь, и сам решал, кому из них предстоит работать в лагере, кто пойдёт на его опыты, а кто сразу же отправится в газовую камеру.
• Герхард Палич — с мая 1940 года был на посту рапортфюрера, с 11 ноября 1941 года лично расстреливал узников во дворе блока № 11; когда был открыт цыганский лагерь в Биркенау, он стал его начальником; сеял ужас среди узников, отличался необыкновенным садизмом.
• Урсула Батори — заместитель Палича по медицинским вопросам в цыганском лагере в Биркенау проводила селекцию заключенных, направляя их в газовые камеры, отличалась крайней жестокостью к цыганским узникам.
• Хейнц Тило — с 9 октября 1942 года лагерный врач в Биркенау, участвовал в селекции на железнодорожной платформе и лагерной больнице, направляя нетрудоспособных и больных в газовые камеры.
• Курт Уленброк — врач эсэсовского гарнизона лагеря, проводил селекцию среди узников, направляя их в газовые камеры.
• Гельмут Феттер — в качестве сотрудника ИГ-Фарбениндустрии и фирмы Байер исследовал воздействие новых лекарств на узниках лагерей.
• Карл Фрич — заместитель коменданта лагеря с мая 1940 года по январь 1942 года. Предложил испытывать смертельный газ «Циклон Б» на пригодность для массовых убийств и провел первые испытания на советских военнопленных.
• Рудольф Хёсс — комендант лагеря до ноября 1943 года.
• Генрих Шварц — с ноября 1941 года был на должности начальника трудового отдела лагеря, в ноябре 1943 года назначен комендантом лагеря Аушвиц 3.
• Иоганн Шварцгубер — с 22 ноября 1943 года возглавлял мужской лагерь в Биркенау.

Примечания

Воспоминания заключённых

• Либстер М. В горниле ужаса: рассказ человека, прошедшего через фашистский террор. — Пер. с англ. — М.: Особая книга, 2007, 250г, 192 с.: ил. ISBN 978-5-9797-0003-8
• Max Liebster: Hoffnungsstrahl im Nazisturm. Geschichte eines Holocaustüberlebenden; Esch-sur-Alzette, 2003; ISBN 2-87953-990-0
• Живульская К. Я пережила Освенцим. — М.: Издательство иностранной литературы, 1960. — 270 с. ≡ Żywulska К. Przeżyłam Oświęcim. — Warszawa: Wiedza, 1946.
• Франкл В. Сказать жизни «Да»: психолог в концлагере.- Москва: Смысл, 2004. — 176 с.

См. также

• Пометка заключённых в концентрационных лагерях
• Нюрнбергский процесс над врачами
• Прессак, Жан-Клод
• Чтец (фильм)
• Мальчик в полосатой пижаме (фильм)
• Массовые убийства в Пшишовице

Ссылки

• На Викискладе есть медиафайлы по теме Аушвиц (Освенцим)

• Освенцим — статья из Электронной еврейской энциклопедии
• Несколько портретов на фоне колючей проволоки
• Концентрационный лагерь Аушвиц. 38 фото.
• Освенцим: концлагерь Аушвиц-Биркенау
• Концентрационный лагерь Аушвиц: фотоальбом в музее Яд Вашем
• Деловая газета Взгляд: Концентрационный лагерь Аушвиц может исчезнуть.
• Аушвиц в глазах СС — djvu версия книги
• Комендант К л Аушвиц. Автобиографические записки Рудольфа Гесса (полное издание)
• ФСБ обнародовала новые данные о количестве погибших в Освенциме
• Концентрационный лагерь Аушвиц глазами Хесса (Гесса)
• Video Tour AUSCHWITZ — BIRKENAU — Schindler Factory

Концентрационные лагеря Третьего рейха
В Германии и Австрии	Арбайтсдорф • Берген-Бельзен • Бёргермоор (нем.) • Берлин-Марцан • Брайтенау • Бухенвальд (подразделения) • Гельзенберг • Гросс-Розен • Дахау • Дора-Миттельбау • Заксенхаузен • Кауферинг • Мальхов • Маутхаузен • Нидерхаген • Нойенгамме • Ораниенбург • Ордруф • Равенсбрюк • Флоссенбюрг • Хаммельбург • Хинцерт • Хохенасперг • Шталаг • Штуттгоф • Эстервеген
Оккупированные территории	Амерсфорт • Баница • Белжец • Богдановка • Больцано • Бретвет • Бронная гора • Вапнярка • Варшава • Вайвара • Вернет • Вестерборк • Генсиувка • Герцогенбуш • Грини • Гюрс • Дарница • Дзялдово • Дранси • Дретель • Дрозды • Дулаг 183 • Жадовно • IX форт (Каунас) • Клоога • Красный • Майданек • Малый Тростенец • Нацвейлер-Штрутгоф • Олдерни • Освенцим (Аушвиц-Биркенау) • Плашув • Рига-Кайзервальд • Ривальт • Рисьера-ди-Сан-Сабба • Саймиште • Саласпилс • Собибор • Стара Градишка • Сырец • Терезиенштадт • Топовске Шупе • Травники • Треблинка • Фальстад • Форт Бреендонк • Форт де Роменвиль • Форт VII • Фоссоли • Фюнбруннен • Хелмно • Црвени Крст • Юнгфернхоф • Яновский • Ясеновац • Ястребарско

Всемирное наследие ЮНЕСКО в Польше
Исторический центр Кракова • Соляная шахта в Величке • Концлагерь Аушвиц-Биркенау • Беловежская пуща (также в Белоруссии) • Исторический центр Варшавы • Исторический центр Замосць • Замок Мариенбург • Исторический центр Торуни • Кальвария-Зебжидовска • Церкви мира в городах Явор и Свидница • Деревянные церкви на юге Малой Польши • Парк Мускау в Ленкнице • Зал Столетия во Вроцлаве