Как правильно пишется латвия

«Lettonia» redirects here. For the Latvian student corporation, see Lettonia (corporation).

Coordinates: 57°N 25°E / 57°N 25°E

Republic of Latvia Latvijas Republika (Latvian) Latvejas Republika (Latgalian) Lețmō Vabāmō (Livonian)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Dievs, svētī Latviju! (Latvian) («God Bless Latvia!»)
Location of Latvia (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend]
Capital and largest city	Riga 56°57′N 24°6′E / 56.950°N 24.100°E
Official languages	Latviana
Recognized languages	Livonian Latgalian
Ethnic groups (2022[1])	63.0% Latvians 24.2% Russians 3.1% Belarusians 2.2% Ukrainians 1.9% Poles 1.1% Lithuanians 0.3% Roma 0.2% Jews 4% Others / Unspecified
Religion (2018)[2]	64% Christianity • 36% Lutheranism • 17% Catholicism • 9% Orthodoxy • 2% Other Christian 35% No religion 1% Others
Demonym(s)	Latvian
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic
• President	Egils Levits
• Prime Minister	Krišjānis Kariņš
• Speaker of the Saeima	Edvards Smiltēns
Legislature	Saeima
Independence  from Germany and the Soviet Union
• Declared[3]	18 November 1918
• Recognised	26 January 1921
• Constitution adopted	7 November 1922
• Restored after Soviet occupation[4]	21 August 1991
• Joined the EU	1 May 2004
Area
• Total	64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) (122nd)
• Water (%)	2.09 (2015)[5]
Population
• 2022 estimate	1,842,226[6] (153rd)
• Density	29.6/km2 (76.7/sq mi) (147th)
GDP (PPP)	2022 estimate
• Total	$72.03billion[7] (105th)
• Per capita	$38,124[7] (48th)
GDP (nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	$40.588 billion[7] (100th)
• Per capita	$21,482[7] (44th)
Gini (2021)	35.7[8] medium
HDI (2021)	0.863[9] very high · 39th
Currency	Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Driving side	right
Calling code	+371
ISO 3166 code	LV
Internet TLD	.lvc
Latvian is the sole official language.[10][11] Livonian is considered an indigenous language and has special legal status.[12] Latgalian written language and Latvian Sign Language also have special legal status.[13] Latvia is de jure continuous with its declaration of 18 November 1918. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

Latvia ( or ; Latvian: Latvija [ˈlatvija]; Latgalian: Latveja; Livonian: Lețmō), officially the Republic of Latvia^[14] (Latvian: Latvijas Republika, Latgalian: Latvejas Republika, Livonian: Lețmō Vabāmō), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the Baltic states; and is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Belarus to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Latvia covers an area of 64,589 km² (24,938 sq mi), with a population of 1.9 million. The country has a temperate seasonal climate.^[15] Its capital and largest city is Riga. Latvians belong to the ethno-linguistic group of the Balts and speak Latvian, one of the only two^[a] surviving Baltic languages. Russians are the most prominent minority in the country, at almost a quarter of the population.

After centuries of Teutonic, Swedish, Polish-Lithuanian and Russian rule, which was mainly executed by the local Baltic German aristocracy, the independent Republic of Latvia was established on 18 November 1918 when it broke away from the German Empire and declared independence in the aftermath of World War I.^[3] However, by the 1930s the country became increasingly autocratic after the coup in 1934 establishing an authoritarian regime under Kārlis Ulmanis.^[16] The country’s de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II, beginning with Latvia’s forcible incorporation into the Soviet Union, followed by the invasion and occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941, and the re-occupation by the Soviets in 1944 to form the Latvian SSR for the next 45 years. As a result of extensive immigration during the Soviet occupation, ethnic Russians became the most prominent minority in the country, now constituting nearly a quarter of the population. The peaceful Singing Revolution started in 1987, and ended with the restoration of de facto independence on 21 August 1991.^[17] Since then, Latvia has been a democratic unitary parliamentary republic.

Latvia is a developed country, with a high-income advanced economy; ranking very high 39th in the Human Development Index. It performs favorably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, living standards, and peacefulness. Latvia is a member of the European Union, Eurozone, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the International Monetary Fund, the Nordic-Baltic Eight, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the World Trade Organization.

Etymology

The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes (along with Curonians, Selonians and Semigallians), which formed the ethnic core of modern Latvians together with the Finnic Livonians.^[18] Henry of Latvia coined the latinisations of the country’s name, «Lettigallia» and «Lethia», both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the country’s name in Romance languages from «Letonia» and in several Germanic languages from «Lettland».^[19]

History

Around 3000 BC, the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea.^[20] The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals.^[21] By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: kurši, latgaļi, sēļi and zemgaļi), as well as the Finnic tribe of Livonians (lībieši) speaking a Finnic language.^{[citation needed]}

In the 12th century in the territory of Latvia, there were lands with their rulers: Vanema, Ventava, Bandava, Piemare, Duvzare, Sēlija, Koknese, Jersika, Tālava and Adzele.^[22]

Medieval period

Although the local people had contact with the outside world for centuries, they became more fully integrated into the European socio-political system in the 12th century.^[23] The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.^[24] The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as the Church had hoped.^[24]

German crusaders were sent, or more likely decided to go on their own accord as they were known to do. Saint Meinhard of Segeberg arrived in Ikšķile, in 1184, traveling with merchants to Livonia, on a Catholic mission to convert the population from their original pagan beliefs. Pope Celestine III had called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193. When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians by force of arms.^[25]

At the beginning of the 13th century, Germans ruled large parts of what is currently Latvia.^[24] The influx of German crusaders in the present-day Latvian territory especially increased in the second half of the 13th century following the decline and fall of the Crusader States in the Middle East.^[26] Together with southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana (Medieval Latin for «Land of Mary») or Livonia.^[27] In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera, became part of the Hanseatic League.^[24] Riga became an important point of east–west trading^[24] and formed close cultural links with Western Europe.^[28] The first German settlers were knights from northern Germany and citizens of northern German towns who brought their Low German language to the region, which shaped many loanwords in the Latvian language.^[29]

Reformation period and Polish and Swedish rule

After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Northern Latvia & Southern Estonia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule.^[24] The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Duchy of Livonia (Ducatus Livoniae Ultradunensis). Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia, formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia.^[30] Though the duchy was a vassal state to Lithuanian Grand Duchy and later of Polish and Lithuanian commonwealth, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 16th century. Latgalia, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.^[31]

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia struggled for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish–Swedish War, northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Riga became the capital of Swedish Livonia and the largest city in the entire Swedish Empire.^[32] Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629.^{[33][citation needed]} In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished.^[34][35]

Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion.^[36] The ancient tribes of the Couronians, Semigallians, Selonians, Livs, and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people, speaking one Latvian language.^[37][38] Throughout all the centuries, however, an actual Latvian state had not been established, so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Latvia, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.^[39]

Livonia & Courland in the Russian Empire (1795–1917)

During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), up to 40 percent of Latvians died from famine and plague.^[40] Half the residents of Riga were killed by plague in 1710–1711.^[41] The capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad, ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate).^{[citation needed]} The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was incorporated into Russia. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a vassal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was annexed by Russia in 1795 in the Third Partition of Poland, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian Empire. All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, German as the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag.^{[citation needed]}

The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819.^{[citation needed][42]} In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility,^{[citation needed]} as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates «of their own free will».^{[citation needed]}

During these two centuries Latvia experienced economic and construction boom – ports were expanded (Riga became the largest port in the Russian Empire), railways built; new factories, banks, and a university were established; many residential, public (theatres and museums), and school buildings were erected; new parks formed; and so on. Riga’s boulevards and some streets outside the Old Town date from this period.^{[citation needed]}

Numeracy was also higher in the Livonian and Courlandian parts of the Russian Empire, which may have been influenced by the Protestant religion of the inhabitants.^[43]

National awakening

During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically.^[44] A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained, quite a lot Latvians left for the cities and sought for education, industrial jobs.^[44] There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie.^[44] The Young Latvian (Latvian: Jaunlatvieši) movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order.^[45][46] The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National Awakening.^[45] Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s.^{[citation needed]} The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s.^[47] Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces.^[48]

Declaration of independence and interwar period

World War I devastated the territory of what became the state of Latvia, and other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands for self-determination were initially confined to autonomy, until a power vacuum was created by the Russian Revolution in 1917, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany in March 1918, then the Allied armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918. On 18 November 1918, in Riga, the People’s Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country and Kārlis Ulmanis was entrusted to set up a government and he took the position of Prime Minister.^[49]

The General representative of Germany August Winnig formally handed over political power to the Latvian Provisional Government on 26 November. On 18 November, the Latvian People’s Council entrusted him to set up the government. He took the office of Minister of Agriculture from 18 November to 19 December. He took a position of Prime Minister from 19 November 1918 to 13 July 1919.

The war of independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe. By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments: the Provisional government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis, supported by the Tautas padome and the Inter-Allied Commission of Control; the Latvian Soviet government led by Pēteris Stučka, supported by the Red Army; and the Provisional government headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit Iron Division.^{[citation needed]}

Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919,^[50] and a massive attack by a predominantly German force—the West Russian Volunteer Army—under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective the Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish–Soviet War).^{[citation needed]}

A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on 1 May 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme, in February 1922.^[51] The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934 but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia’s industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.^[52]

By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of the Great Depression. Latvia showed signs of economic recovery, and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period.^{[citation needed]} On 15 May 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.^[53] After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of «Latvianising» the economy.^[54]

Latvia in World War II

Early in the morning of 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.^[55] The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany’s defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet «spheres of influence».^[56] In the north, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.^[56] A week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; on 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well.^[57]: 32

After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis’s government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich programme.^[58] In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in Latvia.^[58] Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement scheme was agreed.^[59] The racially approved being resettled mainly in Poland, being given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous assets.^[57]: 46

On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a «mutual assistance» pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.^[60]
State administrators were murdered and replaced by Soviet cadres.^[61] Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions. The resulting people’s assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which the Soviet Union granted.^[61] Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins.^[62] The Soviet Union incorporated Latvia on 5 August 1940, as the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic.

The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to Operation Barbarossa, in less than a year, at least 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.^[63] Most were deported to Siberia where deaths were estimated at 40 percent.^[57]: 48

On 22 June 1941, German troops attacked Soviet forces in Operation Barbarossa.^[64] There were some spontaneous uprisings by Latvians against the Red Army which helped the Germans. By 29 June Riga was reached and with Soviet troops killed, captured or retreating, Latvia was left under the control of German forces by early July.^{[65][57]: 78–96} The occupation was followed immediately by SS Einsatzgruppen troops, who were to act in accordance with the Nazi Generalplan Ost that required the population of Latvia to be cut by 50 percent.^{[57]: 64 [57]: 56}

Under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland.^[66] Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust and other atrocities.^[53] 30,000 Jews were shot in Latvia in the autumn of 1941.^[57]: 127 Another 30,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto were killed in the Rumbula Forest in November and December 1941, to reduce overpopulation in the ghetto and make room for more Jews being brought in from Germany and the West.^[57]: 128 There was a pause in fighting, apart from partisan activity, until after the siege of Leningrad ended in January 1944, and the Soviet troops advanced, entering Latvia in July and eventually capturing Riga on 13 October 1944.^[57]: 271

More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation.^[53] Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, mainly on the German side, with 140,000 men in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS,^[67] The 308th Latvian Rifle Division was formed by the Red Army in 1944. On occasions, especially in 1944, opposing Latvian troops faced each other in battle.^[57]: 299

In the 23rd block of the Vorverker cemetery, a monument was erected after the Second World War for the people of Latvia who had died in Lübeck from 1945 to 1950.

Soviet era (1940–1941, 1944–1991)

In 1944, when Soviet military advances reached Latvia, heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended in another German defeat. In the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation’s «live resources». In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender, it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stay, and Latvian national partisans, soon joined by some who had collaborated with the Germans, began to fight against the new occupier.^[68]

Anywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.^[69] Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving Latvia, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war,^[70] returned by the West.^[71]
The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivised
and Sovietised.^[53]

On 25 March 1949, 43,000 rural residents («kulaks») and Latvian nationalists were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on 29 January 1949.^[72] This operation had the desired effect of reducing the anti-Soviet partisan activity.^[57]: 326 Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag) in the post-war years from 1945 to 1952.^[73]

In the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivization.^[74] An extensive program to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.^[75] An influx of new colonists, including laborers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started. By 1959 about 400,000 Russian settlers arrived and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.^[76]

Since Latvia had maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union’s most advanced manufacturing in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine—and some food and oil processing plants.^[77] Latvia manufactured trains, ships, minibuses, mopeds, telephones, radios and hi-fi systems, electrical and diesel engines, textiles, furniture, clothing, bags and luggage, shoes, musical instruments, home appliances, watches, tools and equipment, aviation and agricultural equipment and long list of other goods. Latvia had its own film industry and musical records factory (LPs). However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories.^{[citation needed]} To maintain and expand industrial production, skilled workers were migrating from all over the Soviet Union, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.^[78] The population of Latvia reached its peak in 1990 at just under 2.7 million people.

In late 2018 the National Archives of Latvia released a full alphabetical index of some 10,000 people recruited as agents or informants by the Soviet KGB. ‘The publication, which followed two decades of public debate and the passage of a special law, revealed the names, code names, birthplaces and other data on active and former KGB agents as of 1991, the year Latvia regained its independence from the Soviet Union.’^[79]

Restoration of independence in 1991

In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union that were called glasnost and perestroika. In the summer of 1987, the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument—a symbol of independence. In the summer of 1988, a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia, was opposed by the Interfront. The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988, the old pre-war Flag of Latvia flew again, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990.^[80][81]

In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the Occupation of the Baltic states, in which it declared the occupation «not in accordance with law», and not the «will of the Soviet people». Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic elections. On 4 May 1990, the Supreme Council adopted the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, and the Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia.^[82]

However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as a Soviet republic in 1990 and 1991. In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions. During the transitional period, Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia.^[82]

The Popular Front of Latvia advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenship, however, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted. Instead, citizenship was granted to persons who had been citizens of Latvia on the day of loss of independence in 1940 as well as their descendants. As a consequence, the majority of ethnic non-Latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship since neither they nor their parents had ever been citizens of Latvia, becoming non-citizens or citizens of other former Soviet republics. By 2011, more than half of non-citizens had taken naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship, but in 2015 there were still 290,660 non-citizens in Latvia, which represented 14.1% of the population. They have no citizenship of any country, and cannot participate in the parliamentary elections.^[83] Children born to non-nationals after the re-establishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.

The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on 21 August 1991, in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attempt.^[4] Latvia resumed diplomatic relations with Western states, including Sweden.^[84] The Saeima, Latvia’s parliament, was again elected in 1993. Russia ended its military presence by completing its troop withdrawal in 1994 and shutting down the Skrunda-1 radar station in 1998. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004. The NATO Summit 2006 was held in Riga.^[85] Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was President of Latvia from 1999 until 2007. She was the first female head of state in the former Soviet block state and was active in Latvia joining both NATO and the European Union in 2004.^[86]

Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian; less than 1% of non-citizens are Latvian, while 71% are Russian.^[87] The government denationalized private property confiscated by the Soviets, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatized most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia is one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union. In 2014, Riga was the European Capital of Culture,^[88] Latvia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency euro as the currency of the country^[89] and Latvian Valdis Dombrovskis was named vice-president of the European Commission.^[90] In 2015 Latvia held the presidency of Council of the European Union.^[91] Big European events have been celebrated in Riga such as the Eurovision Song Contest 2003^[92] and the European Film Awards 2014.^[93] On 1 July 2016, Latvia became a member of the OECD.^[94]

Geography

Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea and northwestern part of the East European Craton (EEC), between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°). Latvia has a total area of 64,559 km² (24,926 sq mi) of which 62,157 km² (23,999 sq mi) land, 18,159 km² (7,011 sq mi) agricultural land,^[95] 34,964 km² (13,500 sq mi) forest land^[96] and 2,402 km² (927 sq mi) inland water.^[97]

The total length of Latvia’s boundary is 1,866 km (1,159 mi). The total length of its land boundary is 1,368 km (850 mi), of which 343 km (213 mi) is shared with Estonia to the north, 276 km (171 mi) with the Russian Federation to the east, 161 km (100 mi) with Belarus to the southeast and 588 km (365 mi) with Lithuania to the south. The total length of its maritime boundary is 498 km (309 mi), which is shared with Estonia, Sweden and Lithuania. Extension from north to south is 210 km (130 mi) and from west to east 450 km (280 mi).^[97]

Most of Latvia’s territory is less than 100 m (330 ft) above sea level. Its largest lake, Lubāns, has an area of 80.7 km² (31.2 sq mi), its deepest lake, Drīdzis, is 65.1 m (214 ft) deep. The longest river on Latvian territory is the Gauja, at 452 km (281 mi) in length. The longest river flowing through Latvian territory is the Daugava, which has a total length of 1,005 km (624 mi), of which 352 km (219 mi) is on Latvian territory. Latvia’s highest point is Gaiziņkalns, 311.6 m (1,022 ft). The length of Latvia’s Baltic coastline is 494 km (307 mi). An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country.^[98]

Climate

Latvia has a temperate climate that has been described in various sources as either humid continental (Köppen Dfb) or oceanic/maritime (Köppen Cfb).^{[99][100][101]}

Coastal regions, especially the western coast of the Courland Peninsula, possess a more maritime climate with cooler summers and milder winters, while eastern parts exhibit a more continental climate with warmer summers and harsher winters.^[99] Nevertheless, the temperature variations are little as the territory of Latvia is relatively small.^[102] Moreover, Latvia’s terrain is particularly flat (no more than 350 meters high), thus the Latvian climate is not differentiated by altitude.^[102]

Latvia has four pronounced seasons of near-equal length. Winter starts in mid-December and lasts until mid-March. Winters have average temperatures of −6 °C (21 °F) and are characterized by stable snow cover, bright sunshine, and short days. Severe spells of winter weather with cold winds, extreme temperatures of around −30 °C (−22 °F) and heavy snowfalls are common. Summer starts in June and lasts until August. Summers are usually warm and sunny, with cool evenings and nights. Summers have average temperatures of around 19 °C (66 °F), with extremes of 35 °C (95 °F). Spring and autumn bring fairly mild weather.^[103]

Weather records in Latvia^[104]

Weather record	Value	Location	Date
Highest temperature	37.8 °C (100 °F)	Ventspils	4 August 2014
Lowest temperature	−43.2 °C (−46 °F)	Daugavpils	8 February 1956
Last spring frost	–	Large parts of territory	24 June 1982
First autumn frost	–	Cenas parish	15 August 1975
Highest yearly precipitation	1,007 mm (39.6 in)	Priekuļi parish	1928
Lowest yearly precipitation	384 mm (15.1 in)	Ainaži	1939
Highest daily precipitation	160 mm (6.3 in)	Ventspils	9 July 1973
Highest monthly precipitation	330 mm (13.0 in)	Nīca parish	August 1972
Lowest monthly precipitation	0 mm (0 in)	Large parts of territory	May 1938 and May 1941
Thickest snow cover	126 cm (49.6 in)	Gaiziņkalns	March 1931
Month with the most days with blizzards	19 days	Liepāja	February 1956
The most days with fog in a year	143 days	Gaiziņkalns area	1946
Longest-lasting fog	93 hours	Alūksne	1958
Highest atmospheric pressure	31.5 inHg (1,066.7 mb)	Liepāja	January 1907
Lowest atmospheric pressure	27.5 inHg (931.3 mb)	Vidzeme Upland	13 February 1962
The most days with thunderstorms in a year	52 days	Vidzeme Upland	1954
Strongest wind	34 m/s, up to 48 m/s	Not specified	2 November 1969

2019 was the warmest year in the history of weather observation in Latvia with an average temperature +8.1 °C higher.^[105]

Environment

Most of the country is composed of fertile lowland plains and moderate hills. In a typical Latvian landscape, a mosaic of vast forests alternates with fields, farmsteads, and pastures. Arable land is spotted with birch groves and wooded clusters, which afford a habitat for numerous plants and animals. Latvia has hundreds of kilometres of undeveloped seashore—lined by pine forests, dunes, and continuous white sand beaches.^[98][106]

Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union, after Sweden, Finland, Estonia and Slovenia.^[107] Forests account for 3,497,000 ha (8,640,000 acres) or 56% of the total land area.^[96]

Latvia has over 12,500 rivers, which stretch for 38,000 km (24,000 mi). Major rivers include the Daugava River, Lielupe, Gauja, Venta, and Salaca, the largest spawning ground for salmon in the eastern Baltic states. There are 2,256 lakes that are bigger than 1 ha (2.5 acres), with a collective area of 1,000 km² (390 sq mi). Mires occupy 9.9% of Latvia’s territory. Of these, 42% are raised bogs; 49% are fens; and 9% are transitional mires. 70% percent of the mires are untouched by civilization, and they are a refuge for many rare species of plants and animals.^[106]

Agricultural areas account for 1,815,900 ha (4,487,000 acres) or 29% of the total land area.^[95] With the dismantling of collective farms, the area devoted to farming decreased dramatically – now farms are predominantly small. Approximately 200 farms, occupying 2,750 ha (6,800 acres), are engaged in ecologically pure farming (using no artificial fertilizers or pesticides).^[106]

Latvia’s national parks are Gauja National Park in Vidzeme (since 1973),^[108] Ķemeri National Park in Zemgale (1997), Slītere National Park in Kurzeme (1999), and Rāzna National Park in Latgale (2007).^[109]

Latvia has a long tradition of conservation. The first laws and regulations were promulgated in the 16th and 17th centuries.^[106] There are 706 specially state-level protected natural areas in Latvia: four national parks, one biosphere reserve, 42 nature parks, nine areas of protected landscapes, 260 nature reserves, four strict nature reserves, 355 nature monuments, seven protected marine areas and 24 microreserves.^[110] Nationally protected areas account for 12,790 km² (4,940 sq mi) or around 20% of Latvia’s total land area.^[97] Latvia’s Red Book (Endangered Species List of Latvia), which was established in 1977, contains 112 plant species and 119 animal species. Latvia has ratified the international Washington, Bern, and Ramsare conventions.^[106]

The 2012 Environmental Performance Index ranks Latvia second, after Switzerland, based on the environmental performance of the country’s policies.^[111]

Access to biocapacity in Latvia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Latvia had 8.5 global hectares^[112] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.^[113] In 2016 Latvia used 6.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person — their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Latvia contains. As a result, Latvia is running a biocapacity reserve.^[112]

Biodiversity

Approximately 30,000 species of flora and fauna have been registered in Latvia.^[115] Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves.^[116] Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species.^{[citation needed]}

Species that are endangered in other European countries but common in Latvia include: black stork (Ciconia nigra), corncrake (Crex crex), lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina), white-backed woodpecker (Picoides leucotos), Eurasian crane (Grus grus), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), European wolf (Canis lupus) and European lynx (Felis lynx).^[106]

Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests. 56 percent^[96] of Latvia’s territory is covered by forests, mostly Scots pine, birch, and Norway spruce.^{[citation needed]} It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 2.09/10, ranking it 159th globally out of 172 countries.^[117]

Several species of flora and fauna are considered national symbols. Oak (Quercus robur, Latvian: ozols), and linden (Tilia cordata, Latvian: liepa) are Latvia’s national trees and the daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare, Latvian: pīpene) its national flower. The white wagtail (Motacilla alba, Latvian: baltā cielava) is Latvia’s national bird. Its national insect is the two-spot ladybird (Adalia bipunctata, Latvian: divpunktu mārīte). Amber, fossilized tree resin, is one of Latvia’s most important cultural symbols. In ancient times, amber found along the Baltic Sea coast was sought by Vikings as well as traders from Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire. This led to the development of the Amber Road.^[118]

Several nature reserves protect unspoiled landscapes with a variety of large animals. At Pape Nature Reserve, where European bison, wild horses, and recreated aurochs have been reintroduced, there is now an almost complete Holocene megafauna also including moose, deer, and wolf.^[119]

Politics

The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the Saeima, is elected by direct popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the Saeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the Saeima. This system also existed before World War II.^[120] The most senior civil servants are the thirteen Secretaries of State.^[121]

Administrative divisions

Latvia is a unitary state, currently divided into 43 local government units consisting of 36 municipalities (Latvian: novadi) and 7 state cities (Latvian: valstspilsētas) with their own city council and administration: Daugavpils, Jelgava, Jūrmala, Liepāja, Rēzekne, Riga, and Ventspils. There are four historical and cultural regions in Latvia – Courland, Latgale, Vidzeme, Zemgale, which are recognised in Constitution of Latvia. Selonia, a part of Zemgale, is sometimes considered culturally distinct region, but it is not part of any formal division. The borders of historical and cultural regions usually are not explicitly defined and in several sources may vary. In formal divisions, Riga region, which includes the capital and parts of other regions that have a strong relationship with the capital, is also often included in regional divisions; e.g., there are five planning regions of Latvia (Latvian: plānošanas reģioni), which were created in 2009 to promote balanced development of all regions. Under this division Riga region includes large parts of what traditionally is considered Vidzeme, Courland, and Zemgale. Statistical regions of Latvia, established in accordance with the EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, duplicate this division, but divides Riga region into two parts with the capital alone being a separate region.^{[citation needed]}
The largest city in Latvia is Riga, the second largest city is Daugavpils and the third largest city is Liepaja.

Political culture

In 2010 parliamentary election ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats. Left-wing opposition Harmony Centre supported by Latvia’s Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats.^[122] In November 2013, Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse at a supermarket in Riga.^[123]

In 2014 parliamentary election was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by the Latvian Unity Party, the National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers. They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24.^[124] In December 2015, country’s first female Prime Minister, in office since January 2014, Laimdota Straujuma resigned.^[125] In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new Prime Minister Maris Kucinskis.^[126]

In 2018 parliamentary election pro-Russian Harmony was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats, the second and third were the new populist parties KPV LV and New Conservative Party. Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.^[127] In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new Prime Minister Krisjanis Karins of the centre-right New Unity. Karins’ coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.^[128]

Foreign relations

Latvia is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, OSCE, IMF, and WTO. It is also a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Investment Bank. It was a member of the League of Nations (1921–1946). Latvia is part of the Schengen Area and joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2014.

Latvia has established diplomatic relations with 158 countries. It has 44 diplomatic and consular missions and maintains 34 embassies and 9 permanent representations abroad. There are 37 foreign embassies and 11 international organisations in Latvia’s capital Riga. Latvia hosts one European Union institution, the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC).^[129]

Latvia’s foreign policy priorities include co-operation in the Baltic Sea region, European integration, active involvement in international organisations, contribution to European and transatlantic security and defence structures, participation in international civilian and military peacekeeping operations, and development co-operation, particularly the strengthening of stability and democracy in the EU’s Eastern Partnership countries.^{[130][131][132]}

Since the early 1990s, Latvia has been involved in active trilateral Baltic states co-operation with its neighbours Estonia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the Nordic countries. Latvia is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.^[133] Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB-8) is the joint co-operation of the governments of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, and Sweden.^[134] Nordic-Baltic Six (NB-6), comprising Nordic-Baltic countries that are European Union member states, is a framework for meetings on EU-related issues. Interparliamentary co-operation between the Baltic Assembly and Nordic Council was signed in 1992 and since 2006 annual meetings are held as well as regular meetings on other levels.^[134] Joint Nordic-Baltic co-operation initiatives include the education programme NordPlus^[135] and mobility programmes for public administration,^[136] business and industry^[137] and culture.^[138] The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Riga.^[139]

Latvia participates in the Northern Dimension and Baltic Sea Region Programme, European Union initiatives to foster cross-border co-operation in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe. The secretariat of the Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC) will be located in Riga.^[140] In 2013 Riga hosted the annual Northern Future Forum, a two-day informal meeting of the prime ministers of the Nordic-Baltic countries and the UK.^[141] The Enhanced Partnership in Northern Europe or e-Pine is the U.S. Department of State diplomatic framework for co-operation with the Nordic-Baltic countries.^[142]

Latvia hosted the 2006 NATO Summit and since then the annual Riga Conference has become a leading foreign and security policy forum in Northern Europe.^[143] Latvia held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the first half of 2015.^[144]

On 29 April 2022, in an official ceremony in Vaduz, the Ambassador of the Republic of Latvia to the Principality of Liechtenstein, Guna Japiņa, presented her credentials to His Serene Highness Hereditary Prince Alois of Liechtenstein.^[145]

Military

The National Armed Forces (Latvian: Nacionālie bruņotie spēki (NAF)) of Latvia consists of the Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard, Special Tasks Unit, Military Police, NAF staff Battalion, Training and Doctrine Command, and Logistics Command. Latvia’s defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilisation base and a small group of career professionals. From 1 January 2007, Latvia switched to a professional fully contract-based army.^[146]

Latvia participates in international peacekeeping and security operations. Latvian armed forces have contributed to NATO and EU military operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2009), Albania (1999), Kosovo (2000–2009), Macedonia (2003), Iraq (2005–2006), Afghanistan (since 2003), Somalia (since 2011) and Mali (since 2013).^{[147][148][149]} Latvia also took part in the US-led Multi-National Force operation in Iraq (2003–2008)^[150] and OSCE missions in Georgia, Kosovo and Macedonia.^[151] Latvian armed forces contributed to a UK-led Battlegroup in 2013 and the Nordic Battlegroup in 2015 under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union.^[152] Latvia acts as the lead nation in the coordination of the Northern Distribution Network for transportation of non-lethal ISAF cargo by air and rail to Afghanistan.^{[153][154][155]} It is part of the Nordic Transition Support Unit (NTSU), which renders joint force contributions in support of Afghan security structures ahead of the withdrawal of Nordic and Baltic ISAF forces in 2014.^[156] Since 1996 more than 3600 military personnel have participated in international operations,^[148] of whom 7 soldiers perished.^[157] Per capita, Latvia is one of the largest contributors to international military operations.^[158]

Latvian civilian experts have contributed to EU civilian missions: border assistance mission to Moldova and Ukraine (2005–2009), rule of law missions in Iraq (2006 and 2007) and Kosovo (since 2008), police mission in Afghanistan (since 2007) and monitoring mission in Georgia (since 2008).^[147]

Since March 2004, when the Baltic states joined NATO, fighter jets of NATO members have been deployed on a rotational basis for the Baltic Air Policing mission at Šiauliai Airport in Lithuania to guard the Baltic airspace. Latvia participates in several NATO Centres of Excellence: Civil-Military Co-operation in the Netherlands, Cooperative Cyber Defence in Estonia and Energy Security in Lithuania. It plans to establish the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence in Riga.^[159]

Latvia co-operates with Estonia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:

• Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) – infantry battalion for participation in international peace support operations, headquartered near Riga, Latvia;
• Baltic Naval Squadron (BALTRON) – naval force with mine countermeasures capabilities, headquartered near Tallinn, Estonia;
• Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) – air surveillance information system, headquartered near Kaunas, Lithuania;
• Joint military educational institutions: Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia, Baltic Diving Training Centre in Liepāja, Latvia and Baltic Naval Communications Training Centre in Tallinn, Estonia.^[160]

Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas (BALTTRAIN) and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.^[161] In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to join Nordic Defence Cooperation, the defence framework of the Nordic countries.^[162] In November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.^[163]

On 21 April 2022, Latvian Saeima passed amendments developed by the Ministry of Defence for the legislative draft Amendments to the Law on Financing of National Defence, which provide for gradual increase in the defence budget to 2.5% of the country’s GDP over the course of the next three year.^[164]

Human rights

According to the reports by Freedom House and the US Department of State, human rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government:^[165][166] Latvia is ranked above-average among the world’s sovereign states in democracy,^[167] press freedom,^[168] privacy^[169] and human development.^[170]

More than 56% of leading positions are held by women in Latvia, which ranks first in Europe; Latvia ranks first in the world in women’s rights sharing the position with five other European countries according to World Bank.^[171]

The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which was guaranteed basic rights under the constitution and international human rights laws ratified by the Latvian government.^[165][172]

Approximately 206,000 non-citizens^[173] – including stateless persons – have limited access to some political rights – only citizens are allowed to participate in parliamentary or municipal elections, although there are no limitations in regards to joining political parties or other political organizations.^[174][175] In 2011, the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities «urged Latvia to allow non-citizens to vote in municipal elections.»^[176] Additionally, there have been reports of police abuse of detainees and arrestees, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, incidents of violence against ethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.^{[165][177][178]}

Economy

Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004). On 1 January 2014, the euro became the country’s currency, superseding the Lats. According to statistics in late 2013, 45% of the population supported the introduction of the euro, while 52% opposed it.^[179] Following the introduction of the Euro, Eurobarometer surveys in January 2014 showed support for the euro to be around 53%, close to the European average.^[180]

Since the year 2000, Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.^[181] However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis, shortage of credit and huge money resources used for the bailout of Parex Bank.^[182] The Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.^[183][184]

The economic crisis of 2009 proved earlier assumptions that the fast-growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which rose 150% from 2004 to 2006, was a significant contributor to the economic bubble.^[185]

Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been privatised, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. The private sector accounted for 70% of the country’s GDP in 2006.
^[186]

Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997. Representing 10.2% of Latvia’s total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States of America exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.^[187][188]

In 2010 Latvia launched a Residence by Investment program (Golden Visa) in order to attract foreign investors and make local economy benefit from it. This program allows investors to get a Latvian residence permit by investing at least €250,000 in property or in an enterprise with at least 50 employees and an annual turnover of at least €10M.

Economic contraction and recovery (2008–12)

The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate values. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.^[189]

Latvia’s unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.^[190] In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain, which had 19.7%.^[191]

Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column on 15 December 2008:

The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina^[192]

However, by 2010, commentators^[193][194] noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy. Rating agency Standard & Poor’s raised its outlook on Latvia’s debt from negative to stable.^[193] Latvia’s current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.^[193] Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst at Moody’s Investors Service argued that:

The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country’s ‘internal devaluation’ is working.^[195]

The IMF concluded the First Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with the Republic of Latvia in July 2012 announcing that Latvia’s economy has been recovering strongly since 2010, following the deep downturn in 2008–09. Real GDP growth of 5.5 percent in 2011 was underpinned by export growth and a recovery in domestic demand. The growth momentum has continued into 2012 and 2013 despite deteriorating external conditions, and the economy is expected to expand by 4.1 percent in 2014. The unemployment rate has receded from its peak of more than 20 percent in 2010 to around 9.3 percent in 2014.^[196]

Infrastructure

The transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan as well as other Asian countries and the West is large.^[197]

The four biggest ports of Latvia are located in Riga, Ventspils, Liepāja and Skulte. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.^[197] Free port of Ventspils is one of the busiest ports in the Baltic states. Apart from road and railway connections, Ventspils is also linked to oil extraction fields and transportation routes of Russian Federation via system of two pipelines from Polotsk, Belarus.^{[citation needed]}

Riga International Airport is the busiest airport in the Baltic states with 7.8 million passengers in 2019. It has direct flight to over 80 destinations in 30 countries. The only other airport handling regular commercial flights is Liepāja International Airport.
airBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier with hubs in all three Baltic States, but main base in Riga, Latvia.^[198]

Latvian Railway’s main network consists of 1,860 km of which 1,826 km is 1,520 mm Russian gauge railway of which 251 km are electrified, making it the longest railway network in the Baltic States. Latvia’s railway network is currently incompatible with European standard gauge lines.^[199] However, Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki-Tallinn-Riga-Kaunas-Warsaw is under construction and is set to be completed in 2026.^[200]

National road network in Latvia totals 1675 km of main roads, 5473 km of regional roads and 13 064 km of local roads. Municipal roads in Latvia totals 30 439 km of roads and 8039 km of streets.^[201] The best known roads are A1 (European route E67), connecting Warsaw and Tallinn, as well as European route E22, connecting Ventspils and Terehova. In 2017 there were a total of 803,546 licensed vehicles in Latvia.^[202]

Latvia has three large hydroelectric power stations in Pļaviņu HES (908 MW), Rīgas HES (402 MW) and Ķeguma HES-2 (248 MW).^[203] In recent years a couple of dozen of wind farms as well as biogas or biomass power stations of different scale have been built in Latvia.^[204] In 2022, the Latvian Prime Minister announced about the planned investments of 1 billion euros in the new wind farms and the completed project will expectedly provide additional 800 MW of capacity.^[205]

Latvia operates Inčukalns underground gas storage facility, one of the largest underground gas storage facilities in Europe and the only one in the Baltic states. Unique geological conditions at Inčukalns and other locations in Latvia are particularly suitable for underground gas storage.^[206]

Demographics

The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated to be 1.61 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2012, 45.0% of births were to unmarried women.^[207] The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 73.19 years (68.13 years male, 78.53 years female).^[189] As of 2015, Latvia is estimated to have the lowest male-to-female ratio in the world, at 0.85 males per female.^[208] In 2017, there were 1,054,433 females and 895,683 males living in Latvian territory. Every year, more boys are born than girls. Until the age of 39, there are more males than females. From the age of 70, there are 2.3 times as many females as males.

Ethnic groups

As of March 2011, Latvians formed about 62.1% of the population, while 26.9% were Russians, Belarusians 3.3%, Ukrainians 2.2%, Poles 2.2%, Lithuanians 1.2%, Jews 0.3%, Romani people 0.3%, Germans 0.1%, Estonians 0.1% and others 1.3%. 250 people identify as Livonians (Baltic Finnic people native to Latvia).^[209] There were 290,660 «non-citizens» living in Latvia or 14.1% of Latvian residents, mainly Russian settlers who arrived after the occupation of 1940 and their descendants.^[210]

In some cities, including Daugavpils and Rēzekne, ethnic Latvians constitute a minority of the total population. Despite a steadily increasing proportion of ethnic Latvians for more than a decade, ethnic Latvians also still make up slightly less than a half of the population of the capital city of Latvia – Riga.^{[citation needed]}

The share of ethnic Latvians declined from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.^[211] In the context of a decreasing overall population, there were fewer Latvians in 2011 than in 1989, but their share of the population was larger – 1,285,136 (62.1% of the population).^[212]

Language

The sole official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language sub-group of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian – as a dialect of Latvian is also protected by Latvian law but as a historical variation of the Latvian language. Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is still the most widely used minority language by far (in 2011, 34% spoke it at home, including people who were not ethnically Russian).^[213]
While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, schools also include English, German, French and Russian in their curricula. English is also widely accepted in Latvia in business and tourism. As of 2014 there were 109 schools for minorities that use Russian as the language of instruction (27% of all students) for 40% of subjects (the remaining 60% of subjects are taught in Latvian).

On 18 February 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.^[214] According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.^[215]

From 2019, instruction in the Russian language was gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, as well as general instruction in Latvian public high schools,^[216][217] except for subjects related to culture and history of the Russian minority, such as Russian language and literature classes.^[218]

Religion

The largest religion in Latvia is Christianity (79%).^[189][219] The largest groups as of 2011 were:

• Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 708,773^[219]
• Roman Catholic – 500,000^[219]
• Russian Orthodox – 370,000^[219]

In the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 38% of Latvian citizens responded that «they believe there is a God», while 48% answered that «they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force» and 11% stated that «they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force».

Lutheranism was more prominent before the Soviet occupation, when it was adhered to by about 60% of the population, a reflection of the country’s strong historical links with the Nordic countries, and to the influence of the Hansa in particular and Germany in general. Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a slightly greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adversely. An internal document of 18 March 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.^[220]

The country’s Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church. In 2011, there were 416 religious Jews in Latvia and 319 Muslims in Latvia.^[219] As of 2004, there were more than 600 Latvian neopagans, Dievturi (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.^[221][222] About 21% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion.^[219]

Education and science

The University of Latvia and Riga Technical University are two major universities in the country, both established on the basis of Riga Polytechnical Institute, which was evacuated to Moscow in 1914 when the World War I was started, and located in Riga.^[223] Other important universities, which were established on the base of State University of Latvia, include the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies (established in 1939 on the basis of the Faculty of Agriculture) and Riga Stradiņš University (established in 1950 on the basis of the Faculty of Medicine). Both nowadays cover a variety of different fields. The University of Daugavpils is another significant centre of education.

Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrolment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% decline.^[224]

Latvian policy in science and technology has set out the long-term goal of transitioning from labor-consuming economy to knowledge-based economy.^[225] By 2020 the government aims to spend 1.5% of GDP on research and development, with half of the investments coming from the private sector. Latvia plans to base the development of its scientific potential on existing scientific traditions, particularly in organic chemistry, medical chemistry, genetic engineering, physics, materials science and information technologies.^[226] The greatest number of patents, both nationwide and abroad, are in medical chemistry.^[227] Latvia was ranked 38th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 34th in 2019.^{[228][229][230][231]}

Health

The Latvian healthcare system is a universal programme, largely funded through government taxation.^[232] It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.^[233] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007 and 121 in 2006.^{[234][235][236]}

Culture

Traditional Latvian folklore, especially the dance of the folk songs, dates back well over a thousand years. More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identified.^[237]

Between the 13th and 19th centuries, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class.^{[citation needed]} They developed distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the United States, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life.^{[citation needed]} Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions. For example, one of the most popular celebrations is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice—which Latvians celebrate on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.^{[citation needed]}

In the 19th century, Latvian nationalist movements emerged. They promoted Latvian culture and encouraged Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded by Latvians as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.^{[citation needed]} With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audience.^[238]

The Latvian Song and Dance Festival is an important event in Latvian culture and social life. It has been held since 1873, normally every five years. Approximately 30,000 performers altogether participate in the event.^[239] Folk songs and classical choir songs are sung, with emphasis on a cappella singing, though modern popular songs have recently been incorporated into the repertoire as well.^[240]

After incorporation into the Soviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre, scenography, choir music, and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.^[241]

During July 2014, Riga hosted the eighth World Choir Games as it played host to over 27,000 choristers representing over 450 choirs and over 70 countries. The festival is the biggest of its kind in the world and is held every two years in a different host city.^[242]

Starting in 2019 Latvia hosts the inaugural Riga Jurmala Music Festival, a new festival in which world-famous orchestras and conductors perform across four weekends during the summer. The festival takes place at the Latvian National Opera, the Great Guild, and the Great and Small Halls of the Dzintari Concert Hall. This year features the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra and the Russian National Orchestra.^[243]

Cuisine

Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishes. Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia’s location on the Baltic Sea. Latvian cuisine has been influenced by neighbouring countries. Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs, and pork. Latvian food is generally quite fatty and uses few spices.^[244]

Grey peas with speck are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians. Sorrel soup (skābeņu zupa) is also consumed by Latvians.^[245] Rye bread is considered the national staple.^[246]

Sport

Ice hockey is usually considered the most popular sport in Latvia. Latvia has had many famous hockey stars like Helmuts Balderis, Artūrs Irbe, Kārlis Skrastiņš and Sandis Ozoliņš and more recently Zemgus Girgensons, whom the Latvian people have strongly supported in international and NHL play, expressed through the dedication of using the NHL’s All Star Voting to bring Zemgus to number one in voting.^[247] Dinamo Riga is the country’s strongest hockey club, playing in the Latvian Hockey Higher League. The national tournament is the Latvian Hockey Higher League, held since 1931. The 2006 IIHF World Championship was held in Riga.

The second most popular sport is basketball. Latvia has a long basketball tradition, as the Latvian national basketball team won the first ever EuroBasket in 1935 and silver medals in 1939, after losing the final to Lithuania by one point. Latvia has had many European basketball stars like Jānis Krūmiņš, Maigonis Valdmanis, Valdis Muižnieks, Valdis Valters, Igors Miglinieks, as well as the first Latvian NBA player Gundars Vētra. Andris Biedriņš is one of the most well-known Latvian basketball players, who played in the NBA for the Golden State Warriors and the Utah Jazz. Current NBA players include Kristaps Porziņģis, who plays for the Washington Wizards, Dāvis Bertāns, who plays for the Dallas Mavericks, and Rodions Kurucs, who last played for the Milwaukee Bucks. Former Latvian basketball club Rīgas ASK won the Euroleague tournament three times in a row before becoming defunct. Currently, VEF Rīga, which competes in EuroCup, is the strongest professional basketball club in Latvia. BK Ventspils, which participates in EuroChallenge, is the second strongest basketball club in Latvia, previously winning LBL eight times and BBL in 2013.^{[citation needed]} Latvia was one of the EuroBasket 2015 hosts.

Other popular sports include football, floorball, tennis, volleyball, cycling, bobsleigh and skeleton. The Latvian national football team’s only major FIFA tournament participation has been the 2004 UEFA European Championship.^[248]

Latvia has participated successfully in both Winter and Summer Olympics. The most successful Olympic athlete in the history of independent Latvia has been Māris Štrombergs, who became a two-time Olympic champion in 2008 and 2012 at Men’s BMX.^[249]

In Boxing, Mairis Briedis is the first and only Latvian to date, to win a boxing world title, having held the WBC cruiserweight title from 2017 to 2018, the WBO cruiserweight title in 2019, and the IBF / The Ring magazine cruiserweight titles in 2020.

In 2017, Latvian tennis player Jeļena Ostapenko won the 2017 French Open Women’s singles title, being the first unseeded player to do so in the open era.

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Government

• President of Latvia
• Parliament of Latvia
• Government of Latvia
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia
• Statistical Office of Latvia
• Latvian Institute
• Bank of Latvia

General information

• Latvia Online
• European Union country profile
• Britannica Online Encyclopedia
• BBC News country profile
• Latvia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Latvia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Latvia at Curlie
• Key Development Forecasts for Latvia from International Futures

Culture

• Latvian Cultural Canon
• Latvian Culture Map
• Latvian Culture Portal
• Livonian Culture Portal
• State Agency of Cultural Heritage
• National Library of Latvia Archived 1 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Latvian Heritage
• Latvian Music Information Centre

Travel

• Official Latvian Tourism Portal

Maps

«Lettonia» redirects here. For the Latvian student corporation, see Lettonia (corporation).

Coordinates: 57°N 25°E / 57°N 25°E

Republic of Latvia Latvijas Republika (Latvian) Latvejas Republika (Latgalian) Lețmō Vabāmō (Livonian)
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: Dievs, svētī Latviju! (Latvian) («God Bless Latvia!»)
Location of Latvia (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green)  –  [Legend]
Capital and largest city	Riga 56°57′N 24°6′E / 56.950°N 24.100°E
Official languages	Latviana
Recognized languages	Livonian Latgalian
Ethnic groups (2022[1])	63.0% Latvians 24.2% Russians 3.1% Belarusians 2.2% Ukrainians 1.9% Poles 1.1% Lithuanians 0.3% Roma 0.2% Jews 4% Others / Unspecified
Religion (2018)[2]	64% Christianity • 36% Lutheranism • 17% Catholicism • 9% Orthodoxy • 2% Other Christian 35% No religion 1% Others
Demonym(s)	Latvian
Government	Unitary parliamentary republic
• President	Egils Levits
• Prime Minister	Krišjānis Kariņš
• Speaker of the Saeima	Edvards Smiltēns
Legislature	Saeima
Independence  from Germany and the Soviet Union
• Declared[3]	18 November 1918
• Recognised	26 January 1921
• Constitution adopted	7 November 1922
• Restored after Soviet occupation[4]	21 August 1991
• Joined the EU	1 May 2004
Area
• Total	64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) (122nd)
• Water (%)	2.09 (2015)[5]
Population
• 2022 estimate	1,842,226[6] (153rd)
• Density	29.6/km2 (76.7/sq mi) (147th)
GDP (PPP)	2022 estimate
• Total	$72.03billion[7] (105th)
• Per capita	$38,124[7] (48th)
GDP (nominal)	2022 estimate
• Total	$40.588 billion[7] (100th)
• Per capita	$21,482[7] (44th)
Gini (2021)	35.7[8] medium
HDI (2021)	0.863[9] very high · 39th
Currency	Euro (€) (EUR)
Time zone	UTC+2 (EET)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (EEST)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Driving side	right
Calling code	+371
ISO 3166 code	LV
Internet TLD	.lvc
Latvian is the sole official language.[10][11] Livonian is considered an indigenous language and has special legal status.[12] Latgalian written language and Latvian Sign Language also have special legal status.[13] Latvia is de jure continuous with its declaration of 18 November 1918. The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union member states.

Latvia ( or ; Latvian: Latvija [ˈlatvija]; Latgalian: Latveja; Livonian: Lețmō), officially the Republic of Latvia^[14] (Latvian: Latvijas Republika, Latgalian: Latvejas Republika, Livonian: Lețmō Vabāmō), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the Baltic states; and is bordered by Estonia to the north, Lithuania to the south, Russia to the east, Belarus to the southeast, and shares a maritime border with Sweden to the west. Latvia covers an area of 64,589 km² (24,938 sq mi), with a population of 1.9 million. The country has a temperate seasonal climate.^[15] Its capital and largest city is Riga. Latvians belong to the ethno-linguistic group of the Balts and speak Latvian, one of the only two^[a] surviving Baltic languages. Russians are the most prominent minority in the country, at almost a quarter of the population.

After centuries of Teutonic, Swedish, Polish-Lithuanian and Russian rule, which was mainly executed by the local Baltic German aristocracy, the independent Republic of Latvia was established on 18 November 1918 when it broke away from the German Empire and declared independence in the aftermath of World War I.^[3] However, by the 1930s the country became increasingly autocratic after the coup in 1934 establishing an authoritarian regime under Kārlis Ulmanis.^[16] The country’s de facto independence was interrupted at the outset of World War II, beginning with Latvia’s forcible incorporation into the Soviet Union, followed by the invasion and occupation by Nazi Germany in 1941, and the re-occupation by the Soviets in 1944 to form the Latvian SSR for the next 45 years. As a result of extensive immigration during the Soviet occupation, ethnic Russians became the most prominent minority in the country, now constituting nearly a quarter of the population. The peaceful Singing Revolution started in 1987, and ended with the restoration of de facto independence on 21 August 1991.^[17] Since then, Latvia has been a democratic unitary parliamentary republic.

Latvia is a developed country, with a high-income advanced economy; ranking very high 39th in the Human Development Index. It performs favorably in measurements of civil liberties, press freedom, internet freedom, democratic governance, living standards, and peacefulness. Latvia is a member of the European Union, Eurozone, NATO, the Council of Europe, the United Nations, the Council of the Baltic Sea States, the International Monetary Fund, the Nordic-Baltic Eight, the Nordic Investment Bank, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, and the World Trade Organization.

Etymology

The name Latvija is derived from the name of the ancient Latgalians, one of four Indo-European Baltic tribes (along with Curonians, Selonians and Semigallians), which formed the ethnic core of modern Latvians together with the Finnic Livonians.^[18] Henry of Latvia coined the latinisations of the country’s name, «Lettigallia» and «Lethia», both derived from the Latgalians. The terms inspired the variations on the country’s name in Romance languages from «Letonia» and in several Germanic languages from «Lettland».^[19]

History

Around 3000 BC, the proto-Baltic ancestors of the Latvian people settled on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea.^[20] The Balts established trade routes to Rome and Byzantium, trading local amber for precious metals.^[21] By 900 AD, four distinct Baltic tribes inhabited Latvia: Curonians, Latgalians, Selonians, Semigallians (in Latvian: kurši, latgaļi, sēļi and zemgaļi), as well as the Finnic tribe of Livonians (lībieši) speaking a Finnic language.^{[citation needed]}

In the 12th century in the territory of Latvia, there were lands with their rulers: Vanema, Ventava, Bandava, Piemare, Duvzare, Sēlija, Koknese, Jersika, Tālava and Adzele.^[22]

Medieval period

Although the local people had contact with the outside world for centuries, they became more fully integrated into the European socio-political system in the 12th century.^[23] The first missionaries, sent by the Pope, sailed up the Daugava River in the late 12th century, seeking converts.^[24] The local people, however, did not convert to Christianity as readily as the Church had hoped.^[24]

German crusaders were sent, or more likely decided to go on their own accord as they were known to do. Saint Meinhard of Segeberg arrived in Ikšķile, in 1184, traveling with merchants to Livonia, on a Catholic mission to convert the population from their original pagan beliefs. Pope Celestine III had called for a crusade against pagans in Northern Europe in 1193. When peaceful means of conversion failed to produce results, Meinhard plotted to convert Livonians by force of arms.^[25]

At the beginning of the 13th century, Germans ruled large parts of what is currently Latvia.^[24] The influx of German crusaders in the present-day Latvian territory especially increased in the second half of the 13th century following the decline and fall of the Crusader States in the Middle East.^[26] Together with southern Estonia, these conquered areas formed the crusader state that became known as Terra Mariana (Medieval Latin for «Land of Mary») or Livonia.^[27] In 1282, Riga, and later the cities of Cēsis, Limbaži, Koknese and Valmiera, became part of the Hanseatic League.^[24] Riga became an important point of east–west trading^[24] and formed close cultural links with Western Europe.^[28] The first German settlers were knights from northern Germany and citizens of northern German towns who brought their Low German language to the region, which shaped many loanwords in the Latvian language.^[29]

Reformation period and Polish and Swedish rule

After the Livonian War (1558–1583), Livonia (Northern Latvia & Southern Estonia) fell under Polish and Lithuanian rule.^[24] The southern part of Estonia and the northern part of Latvia were ceded to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and formed into the Duchy of Livonia (Ducatus Livoniae Ultradunensis). Gotthard Kettler, the last Master of the Order of Livonia, formed the Duchy of Courland and Semigallia.^[30] Though the duchy was a vassal state to Lithuanian Grand Duchy and later of Polish and Lithuanian commonwealth, it retained a considerable degree of autonomy and experienced a golden age in the 16th century. Latgalia, the easternmost region of Latvia, became a part of the Inflanty Voivodeship of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.^[31]

In the 17th and early 18th centuries, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sweden, and Russia struggled for supremacy in the eastern Baltic. After the Polish–Swedish War, northern Livonia (including Vidzeme) came under Swedish rule. Riga became the capital of Swedish Livonia and the largest city in the entire Swedish Empire.^[32] Fighting continued sporadically between Sweden and Poland until the Truce of Altmark in 1629.^{[33][citation needed]} In Latvia, the Swedish period is generally remembered as positive; serfdom was eased, a network of schools was established for the peasantry, and the power of the regional barons was diminished.^[34][35]

Several important cultural changes occurred during this time. Under Swedish and largely German rule, western Latvia adopted Lutheranism as its main religion.^[36] The ancient tribes of the Couronians, Semigallians, Selonians, Livs, and northern Latgallians assimilated to form the Latvian people, speaking one Latvian language.^[37][38] Throughout all the centuries, however, an actual Latvian state had not been established, so the borders and definitions of who exactly fell within that group are largely subjective. Meanwhile, largely isolated from the rest of Latvia, southern Latgallians adopted Catholicism under Polish/Jesuit influence. The native dialect remained distinct, although it acquired many Polish and Russian loanwords.^[39]

Livonia & Courland in the Russian Empire (1795–1917)

During the Great Northern War (1700–1721), up to 40 percent of Latvians died from famine and plague.^[40] Half the residents of Riga were killed by plague in 1710–1711.^[41] The capitulation of Estonia and Livonia in 1710 and the Treaty of Nystad, ending the Great Northern War in 1721, gave Vidzeme to Russia (it became part of the Riga Governorate).^{[citation needed]} The Latgale region remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as Inflanty Voivodeship until 1772, when it was incorporated into Russia. The Duchy of Courland and Semigallia, a vassal state of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, was annexed by Russia in 1795 in the Third Partition of Poland, bringing all of what is now Latvia into the Russian Empire. All three Baltic provinces preserved local laws, German as the local official language and their own parliament, the Landtag.^{[citation needed]}

The emancipation of the serfs took place in Courland in 1817 and in Vidzeme in 1819.^{[citation needed][42]} In practice, however, the emancipation was actually advantageous to the landowners and nobility,^{[citation needed]} as it dispossessed peasants of their land without compensation, forcing them to return to work at the estates «of their own free will».^{[citation needed]}

During these two centuries Latvia experienced economic and construction boom – ports were expanded (Riga became the largest port in the Russian Empire), railways built; new factories, banks, and a university were established; many residential, public (theatres and museums), and school buildings were erected; new parks formed; and so on. Riga’s boulevards and some streets outside the Old Town date from this period.^{[citation needed]}

Numeracy was also higher in the Livonian and Courlandian parts of the Russian Empire, which may have been influenced by the Protestant religion of the inhabitants.^[43]

National awakening

During the 19th century, the social structure changed dramatically.^[44] A class of independent farmers established itself after reforms allowed the peasants to repurchase their land, but many landless peasants remained, quite a lot Latvians left for the cities and sought for education, industrial jobs.^[44] There also developed a growing urban proletariat and an increasingly influential Latvian bourgeoisie.^[44] The Young Latvian (Latvian: Jaunlatvieši) movement laid the groundwork for nationalism from the middle of the century, many of its leaders looking to the Slavophiles for support against the prevailing German-dominated social order.^[45][46] The rise in use of the Latvian language in literature and society became known as the First National Awakening.^[45] Russification began in Latgale after the Polish led the January Uprising in 1863: this spread to the rest of what is now Latvia by the 1880s.^{[citation needed]} The Young Latvians were largely eclipsed by the New Current, a broad leftist social and political movement, in the 1890s.^[47] Popular discontent exploded in the 1905 Russian Revolution, which took a nationalist character in the Baltic provinces.^[48]

Declaration of independence and interwar period

World War I devastated the territory of what became the state of Latvia, and other western parts of the Russian Empire. Demands for self-determination were initially confined to autonomy, until a power vacuum was created by the Russian Revolution in 1917, followed by the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Russia and Germany in March 1918, then the Allied armistice with Germany on 11 November 1918. On 18 November 1918, in Riga, the People’s Council of Latvia proclaimed the independence of the new country and Kārlis Ulmanis was entrusted to set up a government and he took the position of Prime Minister.^[49]

The General representative of Germany August Winnig formally handed over political power to the Latvian Provisional Government on 26 November. On 18 November, the Latvian People’s Council entrusted him to set up the government. He took the office of Minister of Agriculture from 18 November to 19 December. He took a position of Prime Minister from 19 November 1918 to 13 July 1919.

The war of independence that followed was part of a general chaotic period of civil and new border wars in Eastern Europe. By the spring of 1919, there were actually three governments: the Provisional government headed by Kārlis Ulmanis, supported by the Tautas padome and the Inter-Allied Commission of Control; the Latvian Soviet government led by Pēteris Stučka, supported by the Red Army; and the Provisional government headed by Andrievs Niedra and supported by the Baltische Landeswehr and the German Freikorps unit Iron Division.^{[citation needed]}

Estonian and Latvian forces defeated the Germans at the Battle of Wenden in June 1919,^[50] and a massive attack by a predominantly German force—the West Russian Volunteer Army—under Pavel Bermondt-Avalov was repelled in November. Eastern Latvia was cleared of Red Army forces by Latvian and Polish troops in early 1920 (from the Polish perspective the Battle of Daugavpils was a part of the Polish–Soviet War).^{[citation needed]}

A freely elected Constituent assembly convened on 1 May 1920, and adopted a liberal constitution, the Satversme, in February 1922.^[51] The constitution was partly suspended by Kārlis Ulmanis after his coup in 1934 but reaffirmed in 1990. Since then, it has been amended and is still in effect in Latvia today. With most of Latvia’s industrial base evacuated to the interior of Russia in 1915, radical land reform was the central political question for the young state. In 1897, 61.2% of the rural population had been landless; by 1936, that percentage had been reduced to 18%.^[52]

By 1923, the extent of cultivated land surpassed the pre-war level. Innovation and rising productivity led to rapid growth of the economy, but it soon suffered from the effects of the Great Depression. Latvia showed signs of economic recovery, and the electorate had steadily moved toward the centre during the parliamentary period.^{[citation needed]} On 15 May 1934, Ulmanis staged a bloodless coup, establishing a nationalist dictatorship that lasted until 1940.^[53] After 1934, Ulmanis established government corporations to buy up private firms with the aim of «Latvianising» the economy.^[54]

Latvia in World War II

Early in the morning of 24 August 1939, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany signed a 10-year non-aggression pact, called the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.^[55] The pact contained a secret protocol, revealed only after Germany’s defeat in 1945, according to which the states of Northern and Eastern Europe were divided into German and Soviet «spheres of influence».^[56] In the north, Latvia, Finland and Estonia were assigned to the Soviet sphere.^[56] A week later, on 1 September 1939, Germany invaded Poland; on 17 September, the Soviet Union invaded Poland as well.^[57]: 32

After the conclusion of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, most of the Baltic Germans left Latvia by agreement between Ulmanis’s government and Nazi Germany under the Heim ins Reich programme.^[58] In total 50,000 Baltic Germans left by the deadline of December 1939, with 1,600 remaining to conclude business and 13,000 choosing to remain in Latvia.^[58] Most of those who remained left for Germany in summer 1940, when a second resettlement scheme was agreed.^[59] The racially approved being resettled mainly in Poland, being given land and businesses in exchange for the money they had received from the sale of their previous assets.^[57]: 46

On 5 October 1939, Latvia was forced to accept a «mutual assistance» pact with the Soviet Union, granting the Soviets the right to station between 25,000 and 30,000 troops on Latvian territory.^[60]
State administrators were murdered and replaced by Soviet cadres.^[61] Elections were held with single pro-Soviet candidates listed for many positions. The resulting people’s assembly immediately requested admission into the USSR, which the Soviet Union granted.^[61] Latvia, then a puppet government, was headed by Augusts Kirhenšteins.^[62] The Soviet Union incorporated Latvia on 5 August 1940, as the Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic.

The Soviets dealt harshly with their opponents – prior to Operation Barbarossa, in less than a year, at least 34,250 Latvians were deported or killed.^[63] Most were deported to Siberia where deaths were estimated at 40 percent.^[57]: 48

On 22 June 1941, German troops attacked Soviet forces in Operation Barbarossa.^[64] There were some spontaneous uprisings by Latvians against the Red Army which helped the Germans. By 29 June Riga was reached and with Soviet troops killed, captured or retreating, Latvia was left under the control of German forces by early July.^{[65][57]: 78–96} The occupation was followed immediately by SS Einsatzgruppen troops, who were to act in accordance with the Nazi Generalplan Ost that required the population of Latvia to be cut by 50 percent.^{[57]: 64 [57]: 56}

Under German occupation, Latvia was administered as part of Reichskommissariat Ostland.^[66] Latvian paramilitary and Auxiliary Police units established by the occupation authority participated in the Holocaust and other atrocities.^[53] 30,000 Jews were shot in Latvia in the autumn of 1941.^[57]: 127 Another 30,000 Jews from the Riga ghetto were killed in the Rumbula Forest in November and December 1941, to reduce overpopulation in the ghetto and make room for more Jews being brought in from Germany and the West.^[57]: 128 There was a pause in fighting, apart from partisan activity, until after the siege of Leningrad ended in January 1944, and the Soviet troops advanced, entering Latvia in July and eventually capturing Riga on 13 October 1944.^[57]: 271

More than 200,000 Latvian citizens died during World War II, including approximately 75,000 Latvian Jews murdered during the Nazi occupation.^[53] Latvian soldiers fought on both sides of the conflict, mainly on the German side, with 140,000 men in the Latvian Legion of the Waffen-SS,^[67] The 308th Latvian Rifle Division was formed by the Red Army in 1944. On occasions, especially in 1944, opposing Latvian troops faced each other in battle.^[57]: 299

In the 23rd block of the Vorverker cemetery, a monument was erected after the Second World War for the people of Latvia who had died in Lübeck from 1945 to 1950.

Soviet era (1940–1941, 1944–1991)

In 1944, when Soviet military advances reached Latvia, heavy fighting took place in Latvia between German and Soviet troops, which ended in another German defeat. In the course of the war, both occupying forces conscripted Latvians into their armies, in this way increasing the loss of the nation’s «live resources». In 1944, part of the Latvian territory once more came under Soviet control. The Soviets immediately began to reinstate the Soviet system. After the German surrender, it became clear that Soviet forces were there to stay, and Latvian national partisans, soon joined by some who had collaborated with the Germans, began to fight against the new occupier.^[68]

Anywhere from 120,000 to as many as 300,000 Latvians took refuge from the Soviet army by fleeing to Germany and Sweden.^[69] Most sources count 200,000 to 250,000 refugees leaving Latvia, with perhaps as many as 80,000 to 100,000 of them recaptured by the Soviets or, during few months immediately after the end of war,^[70] returned by the West.^[71]
The Soviets reoccupied the country in 1944–1945, and further deportations followed as the country was collectivised
and Sovietised.^[53]

On 25 March 1949, 43,000 rural residents («kulaks») and Latvian nationalists were deported to Siberia in a sweeping Operation Priboi in all three Baltic states, which was carefully planned and approved in Moscow already on 29 January 1949.^[72] This operation had the desired effect of reducing the anti-Soviet partisan activity.^[57]: 326 Between 136,000 and 190,000 Latvians, depending on the sources, were imprisoned or deported to Soviet concentration camps (the Gulag) in the post-war years from 1945 to 1952.^[73]

In the post-war period, Latvia was made to adopt Soviet farming methods. Rural areas were forced into collectivization.^[74] An extensive program to impose bilingualism was initiated in Latvia, limiting the use of Latvian language in official uses in favor of using Russian as the main language. All of the minority schools (Jewish, Polish, Belarusian, Estonian, Lithuanian) were closed down leaving only two media of instructions in the schools: Latvian and Russian.^[75] An influx of new colonists, including laborers, administrators, military personnel and their dependents from Russia and other Soviet republics started. By 1959 about 400,000 Russian settlers arrived and the ethnic Latvian population had fallen to 62%.^[76]

Since Latvia had maintained a well-developed infrastructure and educated specialists, Moscow decided to base some of the Soviet Union’s most advanced manufacturing in Latvia. New industry was created in Latvia, including a major machinery factory RAF in Jelgava, electrotechnical factories in Riga, chemical factories in Daugavpils, Valmiera and Olaine—and some food and oil processing plants.^[77] Latvia manufactured trains, ships, minibuses, mopeds, telephones, radios and hi-fi systems, electrical and diesel engines, textiles, furniture, clothing, bags and luggage, shoes, musical instruments, home appliances, watches, tools and equipment, aviation and agricultural equipment and long list of other goods. Latvia had its own film industry and musical records factory (LPs). However, there were not enough people to operate the newly built factories.^{[citation needed]} To maintain and expand industrial production, skilled workers were migrating from all over the Soviet Union, decreasing the proportion of ethnic Latvians in the republic.^[78] The population of Latvia reached its peak in 1990 at just under 2.7 million people.

In late 2018 the National Archives of Latvia released a full alphabetical index of some 10,000 people recruited as agents or informants by the Soviet KGB. ‘The publication, which followed two decades of public debate and the passage of a special law, revealed the names, code names, birthplaces and other data on active and former KGB agents as of 1991, the year Latvia regained its independence from the Soviet Union.’^[79]

Restoration of independence in 1991

In the second half of the 1980s, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev started to introduce political and economic reforms in the Soviet Union that were called glasnost and perestroika. In the summer of 1987, the first large demonstrations were held in Riga at the Freedom Monument—a symbol of independence. In the summer of 1988, a national movement, coalescing in the Popular Front of Latvia, was opposed by the Interfront. The Latvian SSR, along with the other Baltic Republics was allowed greater autonomy, and in 1988, the old pre-war Flag of Latvia flew again, replacing the Soviet Latvian flag as the official flag in 1990.^[80][81]

In 1989, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a resolution on the Occupation of the Baltic states, in which it declared the occupation «not in accordance with law», and not the «will of the Soviet people». Pro-independence Popular Front of Latvia candidates gained a two-thirds majority in the Supreme Council in the March 1990 democratic elections. On 4 May 1990, the Supreme Council adopted the Declaration on the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia, and the Latvian SSR was renamed Republic of Latvia.^[82]

However, the central power in Moscow continued to regard Latvia as a Soviet republic in 1990 and 1991. In January 1991, Soviet political and military forces unsuccessfully tried to overthrow the Republic of Latvia authorities by occupying the central publishing house in Riga and establishing a Committee of National Salvation to usurp governmental functions. During the transitional period, Moscow maintained many central Soviet state authorities in Latvia.^[82]

The Popular Front of Latvia advocated that all permanent residents be eligible for Latvian citizenship, however, universal citizenship for all permanent residents was not adopted. Instead, citizenship was granted to persons who had been citizens of Latvia on the day of loss of independence in 1940 as well as their descendants. As a consequence, the majority of ethnic non-Latvians did not receive Latvian citizenship since neither they nor their parents had ever been citizens of Latvia, becoming non-citizens or citizens of other former Soviet republics. By 2011, more than half of non-citizens had taken naturalization exams and received Latvian citizenship, but in 2015 there were still 290,660 non-citizens in Latvia, which represented 14.1% of the population. They have no citizenship of any country, and cannot participate in the parliamentary elections.^[83] Children born to non-nationals after the re-establishment of independence are automatically entitled to citizenship.

The Republic of Latvia declared the end of the transitional period and restored full independence on 21 August 1991, in the aftermath of the failed Soviet coup attempt.^[4] Latvia resumed diplomatic relations with Western states, including Sweden.^[84] The Saeima, Latvia’s parliament, was again elected in 1993. Russia ended its military presence by completing its troop withdrawal in 1994 and shutting down the Skrunda-1 radar station in 1998. The major goals of Latvia in the 1990s, to join NATO and the European Union, were achieved in 2004. The NATO Summit 2006 was held in Riga.^[85] Vaira Vīķe-Freiberga was President of Latvia from 1999 until 2007. She was the first female head of state in the former Soviet block state and was active in Latvia joining both NATO and the European Union in 2004.^[86]

Approximately 72% of Latvian citizens are Latvian, while 20% are Russian; less than 1% of non-citizens are Latvian, while 71% are Russian.^[87] The government denationalized private property confiscated by the Soviets, returning it or compensating the owners for it, and privatized most state-owned industries, reintroducing the prewar currency. Albeit having experienced a difficult transition to a liberal economy and its re-orientation toward Western Europe, Latvia is one of the fastest growing economies in the European Union. In 2014, Riga was the European Capital of Culture,^[88] Latvia joined the eurozone and adopted the EU single currency euro as the currency of the country^[89] and Latvian Valdis Dombrovskis was named vice-president of the European Commission.^[90] In 2015 Latvia held the presidency of Council of the European Union.^[91] Big European events have been celebrated in Riga such as the Eurovision Song Contest 2003^[92] and the European Film Awards 2014.^[93] On 1 July 2016, Latvia became a member of the OECD.^[94]

Geography

Latvia lies in Northern Europe, on the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea and northwestern part of the East European Craton (EEC), between latitudes 55° and 58° N (a small area is north of 58°), and longitudes 21° and 29° E (a small area is west of 21°). Latvia has a total area of 64,559 km² (24,926 sq mi) of which 62,157 km² (23,999 sq mi) land, 18,159 km² (7,011 sq mi) agricultural land,^[95] 34,964 km² (13,500 sq mi) forest land^[96] and 2,402 km² (927 sq mi) inland water.^[97]

The total length of Latvia’s boundary is 1,866 km (1,159 mi). The total length of its land boundary is 1,368 km (850 mi), of which 343 km (213 mi) is shared with Estonia to the north, 276 km (171 mi) with the Russian Federation to the east, 161 km (100 mi) with Belarus to the southeast and 588 km (365 mi) with Lithuania to the south. The total length of its maritime boundary is 498 km (309 mi), which is shared with Estonia, Sweden and Lithuania. Extension from north to south is 210 km (130 mi) and from west to east 450 km (280 mi).^[97]

Most of Latvia’s territory is less than 100 m (330 ft) above sea level. Its largest lake, Lubāns, has an area of 80.7 km² (31.2 sq mi), its deepest lake, Drīdzis, is 65.1 m (214 ft) deep. The longest river on Latvian territory is the Gauja, at 452 km (281 mi) in length. The longest river flowing through Latvian territory is the Daugava, which has a total length of 1,005 km (624 mi), of which 352 km (219 mi) is on Latvian territory. Latvia’s highest point is Gaiziņkalns, 311.6 m (1,022 ft). The length of Latvia’s Baltic coastline is 494 km (307 mi). An inlet of the Baltic Sea, the shallow Gulf of Riga is situated in the northwest of the country.^[98]

Climate

Latvia has a temperate climate that has been described in various sources as either humid continental (Köppen Dfb) or oceanic/maritime (Köppen Cfb).^{[99][100][101]}

Coastal regions, especially the western coast of the Courland Peninsula, possess a more maritime climate with cooler summers and milder winters, while eastern parts exhibit a more continental climate with warmer summers and harsher winters.^[99] Nevertheless, the temperature variations are little as the territory of Latvia is relatively small.^[102] Moreover, Latvia’s terrain is particularly flat (no more than 350 meters high), thus the Latvian climate is not differentiated by altitude.^[102]

Latvia has four pronounced seasons of near-equal length. Winter starts in mid-December and lasts until mid-March. Winters have average temperatures of −6 °C (21 °F) and are characterized by stable snow cover, bright sunshine, and short days. Severe spells of winter weather with cold winds, extreme temperatures of around −30 °C (−22 °F) and heavy snowfalls are common. Summer starts in June and lasts until August. Summers are usually warm and sunny, with cool evenings and nights. Summers have average temperatures of around 19 °C (66 °F), with extremes of 35 °C (95 °F). Spring and autumn bring fairly mild weather.^[103]

Weather records in Latvia^[104]

Weather record	Value	Location	Date
Highest temperature	37.8 °C (100 °F)	Ventspils	4 August 2014
Lowest temperature	−43.2 °C (−46 °F)	Daugavpils	8 February 1956
Last spring frost	–	Large parts of territory	24 June 1982
First autumn frost	–	Cenas parish	15 August 1975
Highest yearly precipitation	1,007 mm (39.6 in)	Priekuļi parish	1928
Lowest yearly precipitation	384 mm (15.1 in)	Ainaži	1939
Highest daily precipitation	160 mm (6.3 in)	Ventspils	9 July 1973
Highest monthly precipitation	330 mm (13.0 in)	Nīca parish	August 1972
Lowest monthly precipitation	0 mm (0 in)	Large parts of territory	May 1938 and May 1941
Thickest snow cover	126 cm (49.6 in)	Gaiziņkalns	March 1931
Month with the most days with blizzards	19 days	Liepāja	February 1956
The most days with fog in a year	143 days	Gaiziņkalns area	1946
Longest-lasting fog	93 hours	Alūksne	1958
Highest atmospheric pressure	31.5 inHg (1,066.7 mb)	Liepāja	January 1907
Lowest atmospheric pressure	27.5 inHg (931.3 mb)	Vidzeme Upland	13 February 1962
The most days with thunderstorms in a year	52 days	Vidzeme Upland	1954
Strongest wind	34 m/s, up to 48 m/s	Not specified	2 November 1969

2019 was the warmest year in the history of weather observation in Latvia with an average temperature +8.1 °C higher.^[105]

Environment

Most of the country is composed of fertile lowland plains and moderate hills. In a typical Latvian landscape, a mosaic of vast forests alternates with fields, farmsteads, and pastures. Arable land is spotted with birch groves and wooded clusters, which afford a habitat for numerous plants and animals. Latvia has hundreds of kilometres of undeveloped seashore—lined by pine forests, dunes, and continuous white sand beaches.^[98][106]

Latvia has the fifth highest proportion of land covered by forests in the European Union, after Sweden, Finland, Estonia and Slovenia.^[107] Forests account for 3,497,000 ha (8,640,000 acres) or 56% of the total land area.^[96]

Latvia has over 12,500 rivers, which stretch for 38,000 km (24,000 mi). Major rivers include the Daugava River, Lielupe, Gauja, Venta, and Salaca, the largest spawning ground for salmon in the eastern Baltic states. There are 2,256 lakes that are bigger than 1 ha (2.5 acres), with a collective area of 1,000 km² (390 sq mi). Mires occupy 9.9% of Latvia’s territory. Of these, 42% are raised bogs; 49% are fens; and 9% are transitional mires. 70% percent of the mires are untouched by civilization, and they are a refuge for many rare species of plants and animals.^[106]

Agricultural areas account for 1,815,900 ha (4,487,000 acres) or 29% of the total land area.^[95] With the dismantling of collective farms, the area devoted to farming decreased dramatically – now farms are predominantly small. Approximately 200 farms, occupying 2,750 ha (6,800 acres), are engaged in ecologically pure farming (using no artificial fertilizers or pesticides).^[106]

Latvia’s national parks are Gauja National Park in Vidzeme (since 1973),^[108] Ķemeri National Park in Zemgale (1997), Slītere National Park in Kurzeme (1999), and Rāzna National Park in Latgale (2007).^[109]

Latvia has a long tradition of conservation. The first laws and regulations were promulgated in the 16th and 17th centuries.^[106] There are 706 specially state-level protected natural areas in Latvia: four national parks, one biosphere reserve, 42 nature parks, nine areas of protected landscapes, 260 nature reserves, four strict nature reserves, 355 nature monuments, seven protected marine areas and 24 microreserves.^[110] Nationally protected areas account for 12,790 km² (4,940 sq mi) or around 20% of Latvia’s total land area.^[97] Latvia’s Red Book (Endangered Species List of Latvia), which was established in 1977, contains 112 plant species and 119 animal species. Latvia has ratified the international Washington, Bern, and Ramsare conventions.^[106]

The 2012 Environmental Performance Index ranks Latvia second, after Switzerland, based on the environmental performance of the country’s policies.^[111]

Access to biocapacity in Latvia is much higher than world average. In 2016, Latvia had 8.5 global hectares^[112] of biocapacity per person within its territory, much more than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.^[113] In 2016 Latvia used 6.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person — their ecological footprint of consumption. This means they use less biocapacity than Latvia contains. As a result, Latvia is running a biocapacity reserve.^[112]

Biodiversity

Approximately 30,000 species of flora and fauna have been registered in Latvia.^[115] Common species of wildlife in Latvia include deer, wild boar, moose, lynx, bear, fox, beaver and wolves.^[116] Non-marine molluscs of Latvia include 159 species.^{[citation needed]}

Species that are endangered in other European countries but common in Latvia include: black stork (Ciconia nigra), corncrake (Crex crex), lesser spotted eagle (Aquila pomarina), white-backed woodpecker (Picoides leucotos), Eurasian crane (Grus grus), Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber), Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra), European wolf (Canis lupus) and European lynx (Felis lynx).^[106]

Phytogeographically, Latvia is shared between the Central European and Northern European provinces of the Circumboreal Region within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the WWF, the territory of Latvia belongs to the ecoregion of Sarmatic mixed forests. 56 percent^[96] of Latvia’s territory is covered by forests, mostly Scots pine, birch, and Norway spruce.^{[citation needed]} It had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 2.09/10, ranking it 159th globally out of 172 countries.^[117]

Several species of flora and fauna are considered national symbols. Oak (Quercus robur, Latvian: ozols), and linden (Tilia cordata, Latvian: liepa) are Latvia’s national trees and the daisy (Leucanthemum vulgare, Latvian: pīpene) its national flower. The white wagtail (Motacilla alba, Latvian: baltā cielava) is Latvia’s national bird. Its national insect is the two-spot ladybird (Adalia bipunctata, Latvian: divpunktu mārīte). Amber, fossilized tree resin, is one of Latvia’s most important cultural symbols. In ancient times, amber found along the Baltic Sea coast was sought by Vikings as well as traders from Egypt, Greece and the Roman Empire. This led to the development of the Amber Road.^[118]

Several nature reserves protect unspoiled landscapes with a variety of large animals. At Pape Nature Reserve, where European bison, wild horses, and recreated aurochs have been reintroduced, there is now an almost complete Holocene megafauna also including moose, deer, and wolf.^[119]

Politics

The 100-seat unicameral Latvian parliament, the Saeima, is elected by direct popular vote every four years. The president is elected by the Saeima in a separate election, also held every four years. The president appoints a prime minister who, together with his cabinet, forms the executive branch of the government, which has to receive a confidence vote by the Saeima. This system also existed before World War II.^[120] The most senior civil servants are the thirteen Secretaries of State.^[121]

Administrative divisions

Latvia is a unitary state, currently divided into 43 local government units consisting of 36 municipalities (Latvian: novadi) and 7 state cities (Latvian: valstspilsētas) with their own city council and administration: Daugavpils, Jelgava, Jūrmala, Liepāja, Rēzekne, Riga, and Ventspils. There are four historical and cultural regions in Latvia – Courland, Latgale, Vidzeme, Zemgale, which are recognised in Constitution of Latvia. Selonia, a part of Zemgale, is sometimes considered culturally distinct region, but it is not part of any formal division. The borders of historical and cultural regions usually are not explicitly defined and in several sources may vary. In formal divisions, Riga region, which includes the capital and parts of other regions that have a strong relationship with the capital, is also often included in regional divisions; e.g., there are five planning regions of Latvia (Latvian: plānošanas reģioni), which were created in 2009 to promote balanced development of all regions. Under this division Riga region includes large parts of what traditionally is considered Vidzeme, Courland, and Zemgale. Statistical regions of Latvia, established in accordance with the EU Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics, duplicate this division, but divides Riga region into two parts with the capital alone being a separate region.^{[citation needed]}
The largest city in Latvia is Riga, the second largest city is Daugavpils and the third largest city is Liepaja.

Political culture

In 2010 parliamentary election ruling centre-right coalition won 63 out of 100 parliamentary seats. Left-wing opposition Harmony Centre supported by Latvia’s Russian-speaking minority got 29 seats.^[122] In November 2013, Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis, in office since 2009, resigned after at least 54 people were killed and dozens injured in the collapse at a supermarket in Riga.^[123]

In 2014 parliamentary election was won again by the ruling centre-right coalition formed by the Latvian Unity Party, the National Alliance and the Union of Greens and Farmers. They got 61 seats and Harmony got 24.^[124] In December 2015, country’s first female Prime Minister, in office since January 2014, Laimdota Straujuma resigned.^[125] In February 2016, a coalition of Union of Greens and Farmers, The Unity and National Alliance was formed by new Prime Minister Maris Kucinskis.^[126]

In 2018 parliamentary election pro-Russian Harmony was again the biggest party securing 23 out of 100 seats, the second and third were the new populist parties KPV LV and New Conservative Party. Ruling coalition, comprising the Union of Greens and Farmers, the National Alliance and the Unity party, lost.^[127] In January 2019, Latvia got a government led by new Prime Minister Krisjanis Karins of the centre-right New Unity. Karins’ coalition was formed by five of the seven parties in parliament, excluding only the pro-Russia Harmony party and the Union of Greens and Farmers.^[128]

Foreign relations

Latvia is a member of the United Nations, European Union, Council of Europe, NATO, OECD, OSCE, IMF, and WTO. It is also a member of the Council of the Baltic Sea States and Nordic Investment Bank. It was a member of the League of Nations (1921–1946). Latvia is part of the Schengen Area and joined the Eurozone on 1 January 2014.

Latvia has established diplomatic relations with 158 countries. It has 44 diplomatic and consular missions and maintains 34 embassies and 9 permanent representations abroad. There are 37 foreign embassies and 11 international organisations in Latvia’s capital Riga. Latvia hosts one European Union institution, the Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications (BEREC).^[129]

Latvia’s foreign policy priorities include co-operation in the Baltic Sea region, European integration, active involvement in international organisations, contribution to European and transatlantic security and defence structures, participation in international civilian and military peacekeeping operations, and development co-operation, particularly the strengthening of stability and democracy in the EU’s Eastern Partnership countries.^{[130][131][132]}

Since the early 1990s, Latvia has been involved in active trilateral Baltic states co-operation with its neighbours Estonia and Lithuania, and Nordic-Baltic co-operation with the Nordic countries. Latvia is a member of the interparliamentary Baltic Assembly, the intergovernmental Baltic Council of Ministers and the Council of the Baltic Sea States.^[133] Nordic-Baltic Eight (NB-8) is the joint co-operation of the governments of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Norway, and Sweden.^[134] Nordic-Baltic Six (NB-6), comprising Nordic-Baltic countries that are European Union member states, is a framework for meetings on EU-related issues. Interparliamentary co-operation between the Baltic Assembly and Nordic Council was signed in 1992 and since 2006 annual meetings are held as well as regular meetings on other levels.^[134] Joint Nordic-Baltic co-operation initiatives include the education programme NordPlus^[135] and mobility programmes for public administration,^[136] business and industry^[137] and culture.^[138] The Nordic Council of Ministers has an office in Riga.^[139]

Latvia participates in the Northern Dimension and Baltic Sea Region Programme, European Union initiatives to foster cross-border co-operation in the Baltic Sea region and Northern Europe. The secretariat of the Northern Dimension Partnership on Culture (NDPC) will be located in Riga.^[140] In 2013 Riga hosted the annual Northern Future Forum, a two-day informal meeting of the prime ministers of the Nordic-Baltic countries and the UK.^[141] The Enhanced Partnership in Northern Europe or e-Pine is the U.S. Department of State diplomatic framework for co-operation with the Nordic-Baltic countries.^[142]

Latvia hosted the 2006 NATO Summit and since then the annual Riga Conference has become a leading foreign and security policy forum in Northern Europe.^[143] Latvia held the Presidency of the Council of the European Union in the first half of 2015.^[144]

On 29 April 2022, in an official ceremony in Vaduz, the Ambassador of the Republic of Latvia to the Principality of Liechtenstein, Guna Japiņa, presented her credentials to His Serene Highness Hereditary Prince Alois of Liechtenstein.^[145]

Military

The National Armed Forces (Latvian: Nacionālie bruņotie spēki (NAF)) of Latvia consists of the Land Forces, Naval Forces, Air Force, National Guard, Special Tasks Unit, Military Police, NAF staff Battalion, Training and Doctrine Command, and Logistics Command. Latvia’s defence concept is based upon the Swedish-Finnish model of a rapid response force composed of a mobilisation base and a small group of career professionals. From 1 January 2007, Latvia switched to a professional fully contract-based army.^[146]

Latvia participates in international peacekeeping and security operations. Latvian armed forces have contributed to NATO and EU military operations in Bosnia and Herzegovina (1996–2009), Albania (1999), Kosovo (2000–2009), Macedonia (2003), Iraq (2005–2006), Afghanistan (since 2003), Somalia (since 2011) and Mali (since 2013).^{[147][148][149]} Latvia also took part in the US-led Multi-National Force operation in Iraq (2003–2008)^[150] and OSCE missions in Georgia, Kosovo and Macedonia.^[151] Latvian armed forces contributed to a UK-led Battlegroup in 2013 and the Nordic Battlegroup in 2015 under the Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) of the European Union.^[152] Latvia acts as the lead nation in the coordination of the Northern Distribution Network for transportation of non-lethal ISAF cargo by air and rail to Afghanistan.^{[153][154][155]} It is part of the Nordic Transition Support Unit (NTSU), which renders joint force contributions in support of Afghan security structures ahead of the withdrawal of Nordic and Baltic ISAF forces in 2014.^[156] Since 1996 more than 3600 military personnel have participated in international operations,^[148] of whom 7 soldiers perished.^[157] Per capita, Latvia is one of the largest contributors to international military operations.^[158]

Latvian civilian experts have contributed to EU civilian missions: border assistance mission to Moldova and Ukraine (2005–2009), rule of law missions in Iraq (2006 and 2007) and Kosovo (since 2008), police mission in Afghanistan (since 2007) and monitoring mission in Georgia (since 2008).^[147]

Since March 2004, when the Baltic states joined NATO, fighter jets of NATO members have been deployed on a rotational basis for the Baltic Air Policing mission at Šiauliai Airport in Lithuania to guard the Baltic airspace. Latvia participates in several NATO Centres of Excellence: Civil-Military Co-operation in the Netherlands, Cooperative Cyber Defence in Estonia and Energy Security in Lithuania. It plans to establish the NATO Strategic Communications Centre of Excellence in Riga.^[159]

Latvia co-operates with Estonia and Lithuania in several trilateral Baltic defence co-operation initiatives:

• Baltic Battalion (BALTBAT) – infantry battalion for participation in international peace support operations, headquartered near Riga, Latvia;
• Baltic Naval Squadron (BALTRON) – naval force with mine countermeasures capabilities, headquartered near Tallinn, Estonia;
• Baltic Air Surveillance Network (BALTNET) – air surveillance information system, headquartered near Kaunas, Lithuania;
• Joint military educational institutions: Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia, Baltic Diving Training Centre in Liepāja, Latvia and Baltic Naval Communications Training Centre in Tallinn, Estonia.^[160]

Future co-operation will include sharing of national infrastructures for training purposes and specialisation of training areas (BALTTRAIN) and collective formation of battalion-sized contingents for use in the NATO rapid-response force.^[161] In January 2011, the Baltic states were invited to join Nordic Defence Cooperation, the defence framework of the Nordic countries.^[162] In November 2012, the three countries agreed to create a joint military staff in 2013.^[163]

On 21 April 2022, Latvian Saeima passed amendments developed by the Ministry of Defence for the legislative draft Amendments to the Law on Financing of National Defence, which provide for gradual increase in the defence budget to 2.5% of the country’s GDP over the course of the next three year.^[164]

Human rights

According to the reports by Freedom House and the US Department of State, human rights in Latvia are generally respected by the government:^[165][166] Latvia is ranked above-average among the world’s sovereign states in democracy,^[167] press freedom,^[168] privacy^[169] and human development.^[170]

More than 56% of leading positions are held by women in Latvia, which ranks first in Europe; Latvia ranks first in the world in women’s rights sharing the position with five other European countries according to World Bank.^[171]

The country has a large ethnic Russian community, which was guaranteed basic rights under the constitution and international human rights laws ratified by the Latvian government.^[165][172]

Approximately 206,000 non-citizens^[173] – including stateless persons – have limited access to some political rights – only citizens are allowed to participate in parliamentary or municipal elections, although there are no limitations in regards to joining political parties or other political organizations.^[174][175] In 2011, the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities «urged Latvia to allow non-citizens to vote in municipal elections.»^[176] Additionally, there have been reports of police abuse of detainees and arrestees, poor prison conditions and overcrowding, judicial corruption, incidents of violence against ethnic minorities, and societal violence and incidents of government discrimination against homosexuals.^{[165][177][178]}

Economy

Latvia is a member of the World Trade Organization (1999) and the European Union (2004). On 1 January 2014, the euro became the country’s currency, superseding the Lats. According to statistics in late 2013, 45% of the population supported the introduction of the euro, while 52% opposed it.^[179] Following the introduction of the Euro, Eurobarometer surveys in January 2014 showed support for the euro to be around 53%, close to the European average.^[180]

Since the year 2000, Latvia has had one of the highest (GDP) growth rates in Europe.^[181] However, the chiefly consumption-driven growth in Latvia resulted in the collapse of Latvian GDP in late 2008 and early 2009, exacerbated by the global economic crisis, shortage of credit and huge money resources used for the bailout of Parex Bank.^[182] The Latvian economy fell 18% in the first three months of 2009, the biggest fall in the European Union.^[183][184]

The economic crisis of 2009 proved earlier assumptions that the fast-growing economy was heading for implosion of the economic bubble, because it was driven mainly by growth of domestic consumption, financed by a serious increase of private debt, as well as a negative foreign trade balance. The prices of real estate, which rose 150% from 2004 to 2006, was a significant contributor to the economic bubble.^[185]

Privatisation in Latvia is almost complete. Virtually all of the previously state-owned small and medium companies have been privatised, leaving only a small number of politically sensitive large state companies. The private sector accounted for 70% of the country’s GDP in 2006.
^[186]

Foreign investment in Latvia is still modest compared with the levels in north-central Europe. A law expanding the scope for selling land, including to foreigners, was passed in 1997. Representing 10.2% of Latvia’s total foreign direct investment, American companies invested $127 million in 1999. In the same year, the United States of America exported $58.2 million of goods and services to Latvia and imported $87.9 million. Eager to join Western economic institutions like the World Trade Organization, OECD, and the European Union, Latvia signed a Europe Agreement with the EU in 1995—with a 4-year transition period. Latvia and the United States have signed treaties on investment, trade, and intellectual property protection and avoidance of double taxation.^[187][188]

In 2010 Latvia launched a Residence by Investment program (Golden Visa) in order to attract foreign investors and make local economy benefit from it. This program allows investors to get a Latvian residence permit by investing at least €250,000 in property or in an enterprise with at least 50 employees and an annual turnover of at least €10M.

Economic contraction and recovery (2008–12)

The Latvian economy entered a phase of fiscal contraction during the second half of 2008 after an extended period of credit-based speculation and unrealistic appreciation in real estate values. The national account deficit for 2007, for example, represented more than 22% of the GDP for the year while inflation was running at 10%.^[189]

Latvia’s unemployment rate rose sharply in this period from a low of 5.4% in November 2007 to over 22%.^[190] In April 2010 Latvia had the highest unemployment rate in the EU, at 22.5%, ahead of Spain, which had 19.7%.^[191]

Paul Krugman, the Nobel Laureate in economics for 2008, wrote in his New York Times Op-Ed column on 15 December 2008:

The most acute problems are on Europe’s periphery, where many smaller economies are experiencing crises strongly reminiscent of past crises in Latin America and Asia: Latvia is the new Argentina^[192]

However, by 2010, commentators^[193][194] noted signs of stabilisation in the Latvian economy. Rating agency Standard & Poor’s raised its outlook on Latvia’s debt from negative to stable.^[193] Latvia’s current account, which had been in deficit by 27% in late 2006 was in surplus in February 2010.^[193] Kenneth Orchard, senior analyst at Moody’s Investors Service argued that:

The strengthening regional economy is supporting Latvian production and exports, while the sharp swing in the current account balance suggests that the country’s ‘internal devaluation’ is working.^[195]

The IMF concluded the First Post-Program Monitoring Discussions with the Republic of Latvia in July 2012 announcing that Latvia’s economy has been recovering strongly since 2010, following the deep downturn in 2008–09. Real GDP growth of 5.5 percent in 2011 was underpinned by export growth and a recovery in domestic demand. The growth momentum has continued into 2012 and 2013 despite deteriorating external conditions, and the economy is expected to expand by 4.1 percent in 2014. The unemployment rate has receded from its peak of more than 20 percent in 2010 to around 9.3 percent in 2014.^[196]

Infrastructure

The transport sector is around 14% of GDP. Transit between Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan as well as other Asian countries and the West is large.^[197]

The four biggest ports of Latvia are located in Riga, Ventspils, Liepāja and Skulte. Most transit traffic uses these and half the cargo is crude oil and oil products.^[197] Free port of Ventspils is one of the busiest ports in the Baltic states. Apart from road and railway connections, Ventspils is also linked to oil extraction fields and transportation routes of Russian Federation via system of two pipelines from Polotsk, Belarus.^{[citation needed]}

Riga International Airport is the busiest airport in the Baltic states with 7.8 million passengers in 2019. It has direct flight to over 80 destinations in 30 countries. The only other airport handling regular commercial flights is Liepāja International Airport.
airBaltic is the Latvian flag carrier airline and a low-cost carrier with hubs in all three Baltic States, but main base in Riga, Latvia.^[198]

Latvian Railway’s main network consists of 1,860 km of which 1,826 km is 1,520 mm Russian gauge railway of which 251 km are electrified, making it the longest railway network in the Baltic States. Latvia’s railway network is currently incompatible with European standard gauge lines.^[199] However, Rail Baltica railway, linking Helsinki-Tallinn-Riga-Kaunas-Warsaw is under construction and is set to be completed in 2026.^[200]

National road network in Latvia totals 1675 km of main roads, 5473 km of regional roads and 13 064 km of local roads. Municipal roads in Latvia totals 30 439 km of roads and 8039 km of streets.^[201] The best known roads are A1 (European route E67), connecting Warsaw and Tallinn, as well as European route E22, connecting Ventspils and Terehova. In 2017 there were a total of 803,546 licensed vehicles in Latvia.^[202]

Latvia has three large hydroelectric power stations in Pļaviņu HES (908 MW), Rīgas HES (402 MW) and Ķeguma HES-2 (248 MW).^[203] In recent years a couple of dozen of wind farms as well as biogas or biomass power stations of different scale have been built in Latvia.^[204] In 2022, the Latvian Prime Minister announced about the planned investments of 1 billion euros in the new wind farms and the completed project will expectedly provide additional 800 MW of capacity.^[205]

Latvia operates Inčukalns underground gas storage facility, one of the largest underground gas storage facilities in Europe and the only one in the Baltic states. Unique geological conditions at Inčukalns and other locations in Latvia are particularly suitable for underground gas storage.^[206]

Demographics

The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2018 was estimated to be 1.61 children born/woman, which is lower than the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2012, 45.0% of births were to unmarried women.^[207] The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 73.19 years (68.13 years male, 78.53 years female).^[189] As of 2015, Latvia is estimated to have the lowest male-to-female ratio in the world, at 0.85 males per female.^[208] In 2017, there were 1,054,433 females and 895,683 males living in Latvian territory. Every year, more boys are born than girls. Until the age of 39, there are more males than females. From the age of 70, there are 2.3 times as many females as males.

Ethnic groups

As of March 2011, Latvians formed about 62.1% of the population, while 26.9% were Russians, Belarusians 3.3%, Ukrainians 2.2%, Poles 2.2%, Lithuanians 1.2%, Jews 0.3%, Romani people 0.3%, Germans 0.1%, Estonians 0.1% and others 1.3%. 250 people identify as Livonians (Baltic Finnic people native to Latvia).^[209] There were 290,660 «non-citizens» living in Latvia or 14.1% of Latvian residents, mainly Russian settlers who arrived after the occupation of 1940 and their descendants.^[210]

In some cities, including Daugavpils and Rēzekne, ethnic Latvians constitute a minority of the total population. Despite a steadily increasing proportion of ethnic Latvians for more than a decade, ethnic Latvians also still make up slightly less than a half of the population of the capital city of Latvia – Riga.^{[citation needed]}

The share of ethnic Latvians declined from 77% (1,467,035) in 1935 to 52% (1,387,757) in 1989.^[211] In the context of a decreasing overall population, there were fewer Latvians in 2011 than in 1989, but their share of the population was larger – 1,285,136 (62.1% of the population).^[212]

Language

The sole official language of Latvia is Latvian, which belongs to the Baltic language sub-group of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Another notable language of Latvia is the nearly extinct Livonian language of the Finnic branch of the Uralic language family, which enjoys protection by law; Latgalian – as a dialect of Latvian is also protected by Latvian law but as a historical variation of the Latvian language. Russian, which was widely spoken during the Soviet period, is still the most widely used minority language by far (in 2011, 34% spoke it at home, including people who were not ethnically Russian).^[213]
While it is now required that all school students learn Latvian, schools also include English, German, French and Russian in their curricula. English is also widely accepted in Latvia in business and tourism. As of 2014 there were 109 schools for minorities that use Russian as the language of instruction (27% of all students) for 40% of subjects (the remaining 60% of subjects are taught in Latvian).

On 18 February 2012, Latvia held a constitutional referendum on whether to adopt Russian as a second official language.^[214] According to the Central Election Commission, 74.8% voted against, 24.9% voted for and the voter turnout was 71.1%.^[215]

From 2019, instruction in the Russian language was gradually discontinued in private colleges and universities in Latvia, as well as general instruction in Latvian public high schools,^[216][217] except for subjects related to culture and history of the Russian minority, such as Russian language and literature classes.^[218]

Religion

The largest religion in Latvia is Christianity (79%).^[189][219] The largest groups as of 2011 were:

• Evangelical Lutheran Church of Latvia – 708,773^[219]
• Roman Catholic – 500,000^[219]
• Russian Orthodox – 370,000^[219]

In the Eurobarometer Poll 2010, 38% of Latvian citizens responded that «they believe there is a God», while 48% answered that «they believe there is some sort of spirit or life force» and 11% stated that «they do not believe there is any sort of spirit, God, or life force».

Lutheranism was more prominent before the Soviet occupation, when it was adhered to by about 60% of the population, a reflection of the country’s strong historical links with the Nordic countries, and to the influence of the Hansa in particular and Germany in general. Since then, Lutheranism has declined to a slightly greater extent than Roman Catholicism in all three Baltic states. The Evangelical Lutheran Church, with an estimated 600,000 members in 1956, was affected most adversely. An internal document of 18 March 1987, near the end of communist rule, spoke of an active membership that had shrunk to only 25,000 in Latvia, but the faith has since experienced a revival.^[220]

The country’s Orthodox Christians belong to the Latvian Orthodox Church, a semi-autonomous body within the Russian Orthodox Church. In 2011, there were 416 religious Jews in Latvia and 319 Muslims in Latvia.^[219] As of 2004, there were more than 600 Latvian neopagans, Dievturi (The Godskeepers), whose religion is based on Latvian mythology.^[221][222] About 21% of the total population is not affiliated with a specific religion.^[219]

Education and science

The University of Latvia and Riga Technical University are two major universities in the country, both established on the basis of Riga Polytechnical Institute, which was evacuated to Moscow in 1914 when the World War I was started, and located in Riga.^[223] Other important universities, which were established on the base of State University of Latvia, include the Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies (established in 1939 on the basis of the Faculty of Agriculture) and Riga Stradiņš University (established in 1950 on the basis of the Faculty of Medicine). Both nowadays cover a variety of different fields. The University of Daugavpils is another significant centre of education.

Latvia closed 131 schools between 2006 and 2010, which is a 12.9% decline, and in the same period enrolment in educational institutions has fallen by over 54,000 people, a 10.3% decline.^[224]

Latvian policy in science and technology has set out the long-term goal of transitioning from labor-consuming economy to knowledge-based economy.^[225] By 2020 the government aims to spend 1.5% of GDP on research and development, with half of the investments coming from the private sector. Latvia plans to base the development of its scientific potential on existing scientific traditions, particularly in organic chemistry, medical chemistry, genetic engineering, physics, materials science and information technologies.^[226] The greatest number of patents, both nationwide and abroad, are in medical chemistry.^[227] Latvia was ranked 38th in the Global Innovation Index in 2021, down from 34th in 2019.^{[228][229][230][231]}

Health

The Latvian healthcare system is a universal programme, largely funded through government taxation.^[232] It is among the lowest-ranked healthcare systems in Europe, due to excessive waiting times for treatment, insufficient access to the latest medicines, and other factors.^[233] There were 59 hospitals in Latvia in 2009, down from 94 in 2007 and 121 in 2006.^{[234][235][236]}

Culture

Traditional Latvian folklore, especially the dance of the folk songs, dates back well over a thousand years. More than 1.2 million texts and 30,000 melodies of folk songs have been identified.^[237]

Between the 13th and 19th centuries, Baltic Germans, many of whom were originally of non-German ancestry but had been assimilated into German culture, formed the upper class.^{[citation needed]} They developed distinct cultural heritage, characterised by both Latvian and German influences. It has survived in German Baltic families to this day, in spite of their dispersal to Germany, the United States, Canada and other countries in the early 20th century. However, most indigenous Latvians did not participate in this particular cultural life.^{[citation needed]} Thus, the mostly peasant local pagan heritage was preserved, partly merging with Christian traditions. For example, one of the most popular celebrations is Jāņi, a pagan celebration of the summer solstice—which Latvians celebrate on the feast day of St. John the Baptist.^{[citation needed]}

In the 19th century, Latvian nationalist movements emerged. They promoted Latvian culture and encouraged Latvians to take part in cultural activities. The 19th century and beginning of the 20th century is often regarded by Latvians as a classical era of Latvian culture. Posters show the influence of other European cultures, for example, works of artists such as the Baltic-German artist Bernhard Borchert and the French Raoul Dufy.^{[citation needed]} With the onset of World War II, many Latvian artists and other members of the cultural elite fled the country yet continued to produce their work, largely for a Latvian émigré audience.^[238]

The Latvian Song and Dance Festival is an important event in Latvian culture and social life. It has been held since 1873, normally every five years. Approximately 30,000 performers altogether participate in the event.^[239] Folk songs and classical choir songs are sung, with emphasis on a cappella singing, though modern popular songs have recently been incorporated into the repertoire as well.^[240]

After incorporation into the Soviet Union, Latvian artists and writers were forced to follow the socialist realism style of art. During the Soviet era, music became increasingly popular, with the most popular being songs from the 1980s. At this time, songs often made fun of the characteristics of Soviet life and were concerned about preserving Latvian identity. This aroused popular protests against the USSR and also gave rise to an increasing popularity of poetry. Since independence, theatre, scenography, choir music, and classical music have become the most notable branches of Latvian culture.^[241]

During July 2014, Riga hosted the eighth World Choir Games as it played host to over 27,000 choristers representing over 450 choirs and over 70 countries. The festival is the biggest of its kind in the world and is held every two years in a different host city.^[242]

Starting in 2019 Latvia hosts the inaugural Riga Jurmala Music Festival, a new festival in which world-famous orchestras and conductors perform across four weekends during the summer. The festival takes place at the Latvian National Opera, the Great Guild, and the Great and Small Halls of the Dzintari Concert Hall. This year features the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra, the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra, the London Symphony Orchestra and the Russian National Orchestra.^[243]

Cuisine

Latvian cuisine typically consists of agricultural products, with meat featuring in most main meal dishes. Fish is commonly consumed due to Latvia’s location on the Baltic Sea. Latvian cuisine has been influenced by neighbouring countries. Common ingredients in Latvian recipes are found locally, such as potatoes, wheat, barley, cabbage, onions, eggs, and pork. Latvian food is generally quite fatty and uses few spices.^[244]

Grey peas with speck are generally considered as staple foods of Latvians. Sorrel soup (skābeņu zupa) is also consumed by Latvians.^[245] Rye bread is considered the national staple.^[246]

Sport

Ice hockey is usually considered the most popular sport in Latvia. Latvia has had many famous hockey stars like Helmuts Balderis, Artūrs Irbe, Kārlis Skrastiņš and Sandis Ozoliņš and more recently Zemgus Girgensons, whom the Latvian people have strongly supported in international and NHL play, expressed through the dedication of using the NHL’s All Star Voting to bring Zemgus to number one in voting.^[247] Dinamo Riga is the country’s strongest hockey club, playing in the Latvian Hockey Higher League. The national tournament is the Latvian Hockey Higher League, held since 1931. The 2006 IIHF World Championship was held in Riga.

The second most popular sport is basketball. Latvia has a long basketball tradition, as the Latvian national basketball team won the first ever EuroBasket in 1935 and silver medals in 1939, after losing the final to Lithuania by one point. Latvia has had many European basketball stars like Jānis Krūmiņš, Maigonis Valdmanis, Valdis Muižnieks, Valdis Valters, Igors Miglinieks, as well as the first Latvian NBA player Gundars Vētra. Andris Biedriņš is one of the most well-known Latvian basketball players, who played in the NBA for the Golden State Warriors and the Utah Jazz. Current NBA players include Kristaps Porziņģis, who plays for the Washington Wizards, Dāvis Bertāns, who plays for the Dallas Mavericks, and Rodions Kurucs, who last played for the Milwaukee Bucks. Former Latvian basketball club Rīgas ASK won the Euroleague tournament three times in a row before becoming defunct. Currently, VEF Rīga, which competes in EuroCup, is the strongest professional basketball club in Latvia. BK Ventspils, which participates in EuroChallenge, is the second strongest basketball club in Latvia, previously winning LBL eight times and BBL in 2013.^{[citation needed]} Latvia was one of the EuroBasket 2015 hosts.

Other popular sports include football, floorball, tennis, volleyball, cycling, bobsleigh and skeleton. The Latvian national football team’s only major FIFA tournament participation has been the 2004 UEFA European Championship.^[248]

Latvia has participated successfully in both Winter and Summer Olympics. The most successful Olympic athlete in the history of independent Latvia has been Māris Štrombergs, who became a two-time Olympic champion in 2008 and 2012 at Men’s BMX.^[249]

In Boxing, Mairis Briedis is the first and only Latvian to date, to win a boxing world title, having held the WBC cruiserweight title from 2017 to 2018, the WBO cruiserweight title in 2019, and the IBF / The Ring magazine cruiserweight titles in 2020.

In 2017, Latvian tennis player Jeļena Ostapenko won the 2017 French Open Women’s singles title, being the first unseeded player to do so in the open era.

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

Government

• President of Latvia
• Parliament of Latvia
• Government of Latvia
• Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Latvia
• Statistical Office of Latvia
• Latvian Institute
• Bank of Latvia

General information

• Latvia Online
• European Union country profile
• Britannica Online Encyclopedia
• BBC News country profile
• Latvia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
• Latvia from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Latvia at Curlie
• Key Development Forecasts for Latvia from International Futures

Culture

• Latvian Cultural Canon
• Latvian Culture Map
• Latvian Culture Portal
• Livonian Culture Portal
• State Agency of Cultural Heritage
• National Library of Latvia Archived 1 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine
• Latvian Heritage
• Latvian Music Information Centre

Travel

• Official Latvian Tourism Portal

Maps

«Латвия» по падежам

Латвия — имя существительное, неодушевленное, единственное число, женкий род, означает географический объект, название страны.

Падежи Единственное число Ед.ч. Множественное число Мн.ч.

Именительный	Латвия	не употребляется во множественном числе
Родительный	Латвии
Дательный	Латвии
Винительный	Латвию
Творительный	Латвией
Предложный	Латвии

skloneniya.ru — склонение слов по падежам.
Склонение делается алгоритмически в автоматическом режиме и может быть неверным. Используйте сайт исключительно для самопроверки.

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Латвия – что означает? Определение, значение, примеры употребления

Ищешь, что значит слово латвия? Пытаешься разобраться, что такое латвия? Вот ответ на твой вопрос:

Как правильно играть за Латвию (Age of History 2)

Значение слова «латвия» в словарях русского языка

Латвия это:

Ла́твия, официальное название — Латви́йская Респу́блика — государство в Северной Европе. Население, по оценочным данным, на 1 января 2018 года составило 1 934 379 человек (149-е место в мире).

Латвия

(Latvija), Латвийская Республика (Latvijas Republika), государство в Вост. Европе и Прибалтике, омывается Балтийским м. и Рижским зал. 64,5 тыс. км

2. Население 2596 тыс. человек (
1992), городское 69,5%; латыши (1388 тыс. человек; 1989, перепись), русские, белорусы, украинцы, поляки и др. Официальный язык — латышский. Верующие — протестанты, православные, католики. Административно-территориальное деление: 26 районов (уездов) (
1989). Столица — Рига. Законодательный орган — однопалатный Верховный Совет. Низменная равнина, на западе и востоке всхолмленная. Климат переходный от морского к континентальному. Средние температуры января от — 2 до — 7 °С, июля 16-18 °С. Осадков 500-800 мм в год. Главная р. — Даугава (Зап. Двина); много озер. Почвы подзолистые, болотистые.

1/3 территории занимают леса. Заповедники: Грини, Морицсала, Слитере и др.; национальный парк Гауя. В 10-13 вв. первые феодальные княжества (Кокнесе, Ерсика, Талава). В 13-16 вв. под властью немецких феодально-католических завоевателей. В 1562 часть территории Латвии разделена между Польшей и Швецией.

К нач. 17 в. сложилась латышская народность. В 1721 и 1795 присоединена к Российской империи (Курляндская, части Лифляндской и Витебской губ.). Отмена крепостного права в 19 в. ускорила развитие капитализма.

12.1918 в Латвии провозглашена советская власть. В нач. 1920 образована независимая Латвийская республика. В мае 1934 совершен государственный переворот, установлен авторитарный режим. В июле 1940 на территорию Латвии введены советские войска.

7.1940 образована Латвийская ССР, с

История Латвии в картинках | Инфографика

8.1940 в составе СССР. В 1941 оккупирована немецко-фашистскими войсками, освобождена Советской Армией в 1944 — мае

1945. В 1990 ВС республики принял решение о новом названии Латвийской ССР — Латвийская Республика, а также Декларацию о ее независимости. В сентябре 1991 СССР признал независимость Латвии. Тогда же Латвия принята в ООН. Латвия — индустриально-аграрная страна. В структуре национального дохода (1992, %): промышленность 38,5, сельское хозяйство 24,

8. Производство электроэнергии 5,6 млрд. квт.ч (
1991). Ведущие отрасли промышленности — машиностроение и металлобработка (энергетическое машиностроение, электротехническая, радиоэлектронная промышленность, производство средств связи и приборостроение, транспортное, и сельскохозяйственное машиностроение). Развита химическая и нефтехимическая, легкая (текстильная, трикотажная и др.), пищевкусовая (мясо-молочная, рыбная и др.), лесная, деревообрабатывающая и целлюлозно-бумажная, стекольная и фарфоро-фаянсовая промышленность; производство парфюмерно-косметической продукции; художественные промыслы: обработка кожи, янтаря, резьба по дереву, вышивка. Плошадь сельскохозяйственных угодий 2,5 млн. га (
1990). Главная отрасль сельского хозяйства — животноводство (молочно-мясное скотоводство и беконное свиноводство). Посевная площадь 1627 тыс. га (
1990), в т. ч. зерновые 42% (рожь, пшеница, ячмень), кормовые 50%. Выращивают также лен-долгунец, сахарную свеклу. Картофелеводство, овощеводство. Пчеловодство, звероводство. Плошадь осушенных земель 2068,9 тыс. га (
1990). Курорты: Юрмала, Лиепая, Келяри, Балдоне и др. Эксплуатационная длина (1991, тыс. км) железных дорог 2,4, порты: Рига, Вентспилс, Лиепая. Судоходство по рр. Лиелупе и Даугава. Экспорт: продукция машиностроения, легкой и пищевой промышленности.

Основной внешнеторговый партнер Российская Федерация.

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Поиск ответа

Здравствуйте, меня зовут Вадим Кронькалнс, у меня вопрос, можно ли склонять мою фамилию, так как подходящих правил я на сайте у вас не нашёл, фамилия латвийская, и мне отец и дед(сам латыш ), всегда говорили что фамилия не склоняется, помогите разобраться. Заранее благодарю!

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Вашу фамилию склонять не только можно, но и нужно. Все мужские фамилии, оканчивающиеся на согласный, склоняются, это закон русской грамматики (единственное исключение – фамилии типа Черных, Долгих).

Как писать: латыш ские стрелки или Латыш ские стрелки?

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Правильно: латыш ские стрелки. Но (в составе названий): улица Латыш ских Стрелков.

Здравствуйте. Скажите, как правильно произносить чешский, латыш ский, шведский, мужской и подобные с буквосочетаниями шск, жск? Заранее благодарю за ответ.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Звонкий согласный, предшествующий глухому, оглушается (в слове мужской — муШской). В слове шведский слышится Ц (швеЦкий). В остальных случаях произношение согласного соответствует написанию.

Как правильно склонять фамилию Смилга. Фамилия латыш ская. Спасибо!

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Эта фамилия (и мужская, и женская) склоняется так же, как, например, слово Волга: Смилга, Смилги, Смилге, Смилгу, Смилгой, о Смилге.

Как правильно писать: эстоноязычный или эстонскоязычный, литовоязычный или литовскоязычный, латыш еязычный или латыш скоязычный, узбекоязычный или узбекскоязычный, киргизоязычный или киргизскоязычный и т.д.? Или возможны различные варианты? С уважением, Андрей

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

У прилагательных такого типа обычно выбирается вариант с усеченной (бессуфиксальной) первой основой (если он есть). Так, «Русский орфографический словарь» РАН (4-е изд. М., 2012) фиксирует: испаноязычный (не испанско-), украиноязычный (не украинско-), англоязычный и т. д. Но: русскоязычный (нет варианта с усеченной основой). Поэтому корректно: эстоноязычный, узбекоязычный, киргизоязычный. Но: латыш скоязычный (нет варианта с усеченной основой).

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Слово семья восходит к обозначению территориальной общности, исходно оно означало ‘живущие в одном селении’, затем – ‘домочадцы’. Семья – собирательное (суффикс -иj- как в слове братия ) от семь ‘домочадец’, того же корня, что готское haims ‘селение’, латыш ское saime ‘семья, домочадцы’ и др.

Есть ли разница между прилагательными «латвийский» и » латыш ский» или они абсолютно идентичны и взаимозаменяемы?

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Разница примерно такая же, как между прилагательными российский и русский: первое больше связано с государственностью, второе – с народностью. Например: латвийский лат (не латыш ский), но латыш ский язык (не латвийский). Ср.: российский рубль, но русский язык.

Согласно справочнику на сайте, «Большую тенденцию к склоняемости имеют топонимы на -ы: в Катовицах, Фивах, Татрах, Каннах, Чебоксарах». Касается ли это правило только устоявшихся, «освоенных» русским языком иностранных топонимов? Существует ли какое-то универсальное правило, позволяющее однозначно определить, склоняется ли данный иностранный топоним, оканчивающийся на «-ы», или нет? Что если это название маленького населенного пункта, известное только ограниченному числу русскоязычных, проживающих поблизости?

Конкретнее, как быть в случае с названием латыш ского городка Саулкрасты (лат. Saulkrasti, мн.ч.)?

С уважением, Д. Огинский

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Географические названия, оканчивающиеся на -ы, обычно склоняются (даже если топоним не самый известный), по ассоциации с формами множественного числа. В «Словаре грамматических вариантов русского языка» Л. Граудиной, В. Ицковича, Л. Катлинской зафиксировано: Саулкрасты – в Саулкрастах (также: Дубулты – в Дубултах ).

Но в русском языке есть и несклоняемый вариант передачи этого названия – в форме Саулкрасти. Такая фиксация – в «Словаре собственных имен русского языка» Ф. Л. Агеенко.

Здравствуйте.
Человека зовут Олег Валерьевич Знаро́к, ударение в фамилии на «О», по происхождению латыш.
Скажите, пожалуйста, как правильно — «профессия Олега Знарока»
или «профессия Олега Знарка».
Спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Мужскую фамилию Знарок можно склонять двояким образом: с выпадением гласного (Знарка, Знарку) и без выпадения гласного (Знарока, Знароку). Но ввиду того, что фамилии выполняют юридическую функцию, всегда предпочтительно склонять их без выпадения гласного, т. е. в данном случае Знароку, Знароку.

Как склоняется женская латыш ская фамилия Холмицка? Элга Холмицка. Семинар Элги Холмицк.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Здравствуйте. На вашем сайте написано «не склоняются эстонские и финские наименования, оканчивающиеся на -а, -я безударные: Савонлинна, нескл. (гор., Финляндия); Ювяскюля, нескл. (гор., Финляндия); Сааремаа, нескл. (о-­в, Эстония);»
Хочу задать такой вопрос — как это правило относится к эстонскому городу Нарва, название которого, все же, склоняется. Так же хотелось бы знать, склоняется ли название эстонского города Валга? Постоянно возникают споры, склоняется ли название этого города? Я придерживаюсь точки зрения, что по правилам русского языка Валга является таким же исключением, как Нарва.

Немного истории — во времена Российской Империи, город назывался Валк и склонялся по всем правилам. В 1920 году произошло разделение города на две части — эстонскую Валгу и латыш скую Валку. Склонение обоих названий продолжилось и в советское время, а после 1991 года решили, что эстонские названия не склоняются (а как же Нарва тогда?). Помогите разрешить этот спор.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Названия Нарва и Валга склоняются, т. к. эти названия освоены русским языком. В правиле, которое Вы цитируете, речь идет в первую очередь о малоосвоенных названиях.

Здравствуйте. Склоняется ли мужская латыш ская фамилия Вирза? Правильным ли будет написание: в лице директора Вирзы В? Спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Эта фамилия склоняется: в лице директора Вирзы.

В «Словаре улиц Москвы» даны две нормы ударения в слове «Квесисская». http://www.gramota.ru/spravka/moscow/?page=6&alpha=%CA
В латыш ской фамилии Квесис, давшей имя этой улице, ударение падает на первый слог.

Как всё-таки правильно?

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Правильное ударение: Квес и сская.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Слово снег относится к древнейшему пласту лексики, оно восходит к праиндоевропейской основе *snoiguhos и имеет соответствия в других индоевропейских языках, ср. латыш ск. sniegs, нем. Schnee ‘снег’ и др.

Здравсвуйте.
К сожалению, я не могу найти этимологию слова такого интересного и частоупотребляемого в прямом и переносном смысле слова «мясо». Подскажите, пожалуйста, где можно найти и, что еще лучше, какова его этимология?
Встречал в литературе, что его значение может происходить от индийской мантры «мьян-со», что в приблизительном переводе означает: «сейчас я тебя, потом — ты меня (убьешь и съешь)».
Спасибо.

Ответ справочной службы русского языка

Слово мясо происходит от древней индоевропейской основы *memso и имеет соответствия в других индоевропейских языках, ср. др.-прусск. mensa ‘мясо’, латыш ское miesa ‘тело’ и др.

Источник

Латвийская Республика
Latvijas Republika

Флаг Герб
Гимн: «Dievs, Svētī Latviju (Боже, благослови Латвию)»
Расположение Латвии (тёмно-зелёный): — в Европе (светло-зелёный и тёмно-серый) — в Европейском союзе (светло-зелёный)
Дата независимости	18 ноября 1918 (от России) 4 мая 1990 (от СССР)
Официальный язык	латышский
Столица	Рига
Крупнейшие города	Рига, Даугавпилс, Лиепая, Елгава, Юрмала, Вентспилс
Форма правления	парламентская республика
Президент Премьер-министр	Раймондс Вейонис Марис Кучинскис
Территория • Всего • % водной поверхн.	124-я в мире 64 589 км² 1,5
Население • Оценка (2016) • Плотность	▼ 1 962 700[1] чел. (148-е) 30,5 чел./км²
ВВП (ППС)   • Итого (2015)   • На душу населения	49,081 млрд[2] долл. (107-й) 24 712[2][3] долл.
ВВП (номинал)   • Итого (2015)   • На душу населения	27,048 млрд[2]. долл. (96-й) 13 618[2][3] долл.
ИЧР (2015)	▲ 0,819[4] (очень высокий) (46-е место)
Названия жителей	латви́ец, латви́йка, латви́йцы[5]
Валюта	евро (EUR, код 978)
Интернет-домен	.lv, .eu
Код ISO	LV
Код МОК	LAT
Телефонный код	+371
Часовые пояса	EET (UTC+2, летом UTC+3)

Координаты: 57°00′00″ с. ш. 24°56′00″ в. д. / 57.00000° с. ш. 24.93333° в. д. ^(G) (O)

Ла́твия (латыш. Latvija), официальное название — Латви́йская Респу́блика (латыш. Latvijas Republika) — государство в Северной Европе^[6]. Население, по оценочным данным, на 1 мая 2016 года составляет 1 962 700^[1] человек (149-е место в мире).

Территория — 64 589 км² (122-е место в мире). Латвия граничит с Эстонией на севере, Россией — на востоке, с Белоруссией — на юго-востоке и Литвой — на юге. Подразделяется на 119 административно-территориальных единиц, 110 из которых являются краями и 9 — республиканскими городами, приравненными по статусу к краям.

Столица — Рига. Государственный язык — латышский.

Унитарное государство, парламентская республика. Президент — Раймондс Вейонис (с 8 июля 2015 года), премьер-министр (официальное наименование должности — президент министров Латвии) — Марис Кучинскис (с 11 февраля 2016 года).

Экономика ориентирована на логистику, банковское обслуживание, туризм, пищевую промышленность^[7]. Объём ВВП по паритету покупательной способности за 2015 год составил 49,081 миллиарда долларов США (24 712 долларов США на душу населения). Денежная единица — евро.

Независимость страны провозглашена 18 ноября 1918 года. В 1940—1991 годах она находилась в составе СССР.

Происхождение названия[править | править вики-текст]

Впервые похожее название в форме «Летия» (Lettia, Letthia, Leththia) встречается в Хронике Генриха (1209). Первоначально немцы так называли земли, где жили латгалы. Название «Латвия» пришло в латышский язык из литовского, в котором оно образовалось от этнонима латышей — «латвяй» (лит. latviai)^[8].

История[править | править вики-текст]

До XIII века[править | править вики-текст]

Около 3-го тысячелетия до н. э. на территорию Латвии пришли финно-угорские племена ямочно-гребенчатой керамики^[9] (лингвистическими потомками которых являлись исторические ливы). Приход индоевропейских народов связан с нашествием племен культуры боевых топоров. Не позже 1-го тысячелетия до н. э. здесь расселились балтские племена культуры штрихованной керамики.
До VI века северная часть Латвии была финно-угорской по языку. К VI—X веку с юга на эту территорию проникли племена балтов: курши и латгалы. Согласно сообщению летописцев, ливы платили дань полоцким князьям^[10], курши платили дань королям Швеции^[11]. На территории восточной Латвии начало распространяться православие, но местные жители неохотно отходили от языческих верований. Большего успеха на этом поприще добились немцы: в эпоху крестовых походов христиане Западной Европы отправились обращать в христианство и северных язычников, однако у крестоносцев были не только религиозные, но и чисто практические намерения. В 1185 году было основано первое епископство (в Икскюле), а в 1198 году Папа Иннокентий III издал буллу о начале крестового похода на прибалтийские земли.

XIII—XV века[править | править вики-текст]

В 1201 году епископ Альберт Буксгевден основал город Рига. Для лучшей организации приобщения земель ливов и латгалов к лону церкви (а заодно и политического их покорения) он же основал орден меченосцев (после разгрома в битве при Сауле — Ливонский орден в составе Тевтонского ордена), впоследствии ставший самостоятельной политической и экономической силой; орден и епископ вели борьбу друг с другом за политическую гегемонию в Ливонии^[12]. В 1209 году епископ и орден договорились о разделе захваченных и ещё не захваченных земель. На карте Европы появилось государственное образование немецких рыцарей-крестоносцев — Ливония (по названию местного этноса — ливов). В её состав вошли территория нынешних Эстонии и Латвии. В 1254 году произошёл новый раздел латвийских земель — по договору между Рижским архиепископством, его соборным капитулом и Ливонским орденом. Многие ливонские города в дальнейшем стали членами процветавшего Северо-Европейского торгового союза — Ганзы.

XVI век[править | править вики-текст]

Рижане активно участвовали в Реформации, уже в 1517 году в Ригу прибыл проповедник идей Лютера Андреас Кнопкен. В 1530 году Николаус Рамм впервые перевёл отрывки из Библии на латышский язык. После некоторых конфликтов (в том числе вооружённых) в 1554 году магистр Ливонского ордена Вальтер фон Плеттенберг провозгласил свободу вероисповедания в Ливонии.

В это время под началом московских князей консолидировалось соседнее Русское государство. Московский царь Иван IV Грозный не скрывал своих стремлений заполучить Ливонию и другие важные земли. Как предлог был предъявлен протест о неуплате дани за 300 лет, которую Русь по причинам монголо-татарского ига давно не требовала, хотя и не отменяла, а также то, что город Дерпт (ныне Тарту) был основан как Юрьев князем Ярославом Мудрым. Прибалтийские немцы отнеслись к требованиям русского царя пренебрежительно, что царь Иван использовал как повод для начала войны. Вторгшись на территорию Ливонии в 1558 году, уже в августе 1560 он разгромил разобщённые силы ордена в битве при Эргеме. Продлившаяся 25 лет Ливонская война завершилась в 1583 году Плюсским перемирием. В результате территория Ливонии была разделена между польско-литовским государством, Швецией (север нынешней Эстонии) и Данией (ей достался остров Эзель, ныне Сааремаа). Земли Ливонского ордена к северу от Западной Двины стали Задвинским герцогством, напрямую управлявшимся Польшей, а земли к югу стали вассальным государством Речи Посполитой — Курляндским герцогством. Последнее образование было даровано последнему магистру Ливонского ордена Готхарду Кетлеру, ещё в 1561 году по Виленскому договору, для защиты от Русского царства, признавшему себя вассалом польского короля Сигизмунда II Августа. Курляндское герцогство, формально оставаясь вассалом слабевшей Польши, фактически примыкало во внешней политике к сильнейшему государству региона, что и позволяло ему сохранить себя в те бурные времена, а при герцоге Якобе Кеттлере (правил с перерывами в 1642—1682 годах) пережить наивысший расцвет и даже обзавестись колониями в Африке (крепость Св. Андрея) и Центральной Америке (остров Тобаго). Правда, долго эти колонии удерживать не удалось ввиду большой активности английских и голландских колонизаторов.

XVII век[править | править вики-текст]

Образование латышской нации в результате консолидации отдельных народов: латгалов, селов, земгалов, куршей и ливов. В 1638 году Георгом Манселиусом был составлен первый латышский словарь «Lettus», в 1649 году была напечатана «Historia Lettica» (Латышская история) Пауля Эйнхорна.

Часть латгальцев до сих пор сохраняет свой своеобразный латгальский язык, хотя в Латвии и даже среди самих латгальцев существует множество диалектов и наречий, поэтому многие историки и языковеды считают латгальский язык одним из «больших» диалектов латышского языка^[13]. Такова и официальная позиция государства, с этой стороны подкрепляемая и очень сильным среди латышей чувством патриотизма (три звезды на гербе Латвии и в руках Женщины-Свободы на вершине одноимённого памятника в центре Риги символизируют три края Латвии — Курземе-Земгале, Видземе и Латгалию).

XVIII век[править | править вики-текст]

• 1721 год — по результатам Северной войны Лифляндия отходит Российской империи.
• 1772 год — при первом разделе Речи Посполитой Латгалия (Инфлянты Польские) отходит России.
• 1787 год — вышел первый букварь латышского языка^[14].
• 1795 год — при третьем разделе Речи Посполитой Курляндское герцогство отходит Российской империи.

XIX век[править | править вики-текст]

• 1812 год — война с Наполеоном отчасти затронула территорию современной Латвии.
• 1817 год — отмена крепостного права в Курляндской губернии.
• 1819 год — отмена крепостного права в Лифляндской губернии.
• 1861 год — вступила в строй первая на территории современной Латвии железная дорога Рига — Динабург.
• 1862 год — открыт Рижский политехнический институт.

С середины XIX века — рост национального самосознания, движение младолатышей.

Конец XIX века — бурное развитие промышленности. Начали работать Русско-Балтийский вагонный завод, вагоностроительный завод «Феникс», завод резиновых изделий «Проводник», выпускаются первые в России автомобили и велосипеды. Ведущими отраслями становятся машиностроение и металлообработка.

Май 1899 года — выступления рабочих (т. н. Рижский бунт)

XX век[править | править вики-текст]

1905 год — революционные события в Латвии.

1915 год — оккупация германскими войсками Курляндии в ходе Первой мировой войны, эвакуация промышленности из латвийских городов, большие разрушения в Двинске (ныне Даугавпилс), создание латышских стрелковых частей.

18 ноября 1918 года — Народный Совет Латвии провозгласил Латвийскую Республику как независимое и самостоятельное государство, чем завершил этап подготовки государственности Латвии^[15].

22 декабря 1918 года — В. И. Ульянов (Ленин) подписывает декрет Совета Народных Комиссаров о признании независимости Советской Республики Латвии.

1918—1920 год — гражданская война в Латвии. Основные участники конфликта — национальное буржуазное правительство К. Улманиса, поддерживаемое Антантой, и советская власть, поддерживаемая Советской Россией. Также в войне участвовали прогермански настроенные формирования.

11 августа 1920 года — в Риге был подписан мирный договор между РСФСР и Латвией, в котором признается независимость Латвийской Республики. Что на основе правовых норм того времени, де-юре привело к появлению Латвийской Республики как субъекта международного права.

26 января 1921 года — признание Антантой Латвии как независимого государства де-юре.

22 сентября 1921 года — Латвия вступила в Лигу Наций.

15 мая 1934 года — государственный переворот, в руках К. Улманиса сосредотачивается абсолютная власть в стране.

23 августа 1939 года — Германия и Советский Союз подписывают договор о ненападении (также известен как пакт Молотова-Риббентропа). К договору прилагался секретный дополнительный протокол о разделе стран Восточной Европы на сферы немецких и советских интересов (Латвия попадала в сферу влияния СССР).

29 октября — согласно «базовым договорам», в Латвию прибывают части 2-го отдельного стрелкового корпуса и 18-й авиационной бригады Красной Армии, в которых насчитывалось 21 559 человек.

15 июня 1940 года — нападение на пограничников Латвии в Масленках.

16 июня в 14:00 — советский народный комиссар иностранных дел В. Молотов зачитал послу Латвии Ф. Коциньшу ультиматум правительства СССР, в котором требовались отставка правительства Латвии и введение неограниченного контингента советских вооружённых сил в Латвию, дополнив его, что если до 23:00 не будет получен ответ от правительства Латвии, вооружённые силы СССР войдут на территорию Латвии и подавят любое сопротивление. Правительство К. Улманиса вечером 16 июня решило принять ультиматум и уйти в отставку. Военное сопротивление кабинет министров отклонил, так как считал, что оно вызовет кровопролитие, но не спасет Латвийское государство.

17 июня — дополнительные части Красной Армии вступают в Латвию.

14-15 июля 1940 года — в Латвии проходят выборы в Народный Сейм. На выборах был дозволен только один — выдвигаемый от «Блока трудового народа» — список кандидатов. Все остальные альтернативные списки были отклонены. Официально было сообщено, что за упомянутый список было подано 97,5 % голосов избирателей.

21 июля 1940 года — Народный Сейм провозглашает Латвию советской республикой (Латвийская Советская Социалистическая Республика) и 5 августа 1940 года — Верховный Совет СССР принимает Латвию в состав СССР.

1941 год — волна репрессий — расстрелы и высылка в Сибирь и Казахстан^[16] бывших госслужащих Латвийской Республики, членов политических партий и общественных организаций независимой Латвии, полицейских и военных чинов, крестьян (кулаков) — тех, кого власти посчитали «опасными» для советского режима.

Согласно документам Государственного архива Латвии, 14 июня 1941 года за пределы Латвии было депортировано 15 424 человека, из них 5263 было арестовано. Из арестованных было расстреляно 700, умерло в заключении 3441 человек; то есть выжила одна пятая часть арестованных. Среди остальных депортированных в местах спецпоселения умерло 1900 человек^[17].

22 июня 1941 года — нападение нацистской Германии на СССР. К середине июля вся территория Латвии оккупирована германскими войсками.

По советским данным, за годы нацистской оккупации нацистами и их пособниками в Латвии было убито 313 798 советских граждан (в том числе 39 835 детей)^[18] и 330 тысяч советских военнопленных^[19].

13 октября 1944 года — части Красной Армии вступают в Ригу.

1949 год — во время второй волны репрессий из Латвии депортировано около 50 000 человек.

1940—1956 годы — движение «национальных партизан» (т. н. «лесные братья»).

1940—1991 годы — Латвийская ССР в составе СССР. В республике развивается промышленность (предприятия ВЭФ, «Радиотехника», РАФ, «Лайма»). В этот период многие партийные руководители Советской Латвии были выдвинуты на руководящие посты в Москву, среди них член Политбюро ЦК КПСС А. Я. Пельше, руководитель КГБ Латвии Б. К. Пуго и др.

Власти Латвии считают период нахождения страны в составе СССР советской оккупацией и в 2016 году оценивали ущерб от неё в 185 миллиардов евро^[20].

4 мая 1990 года Верховным Советом Латвийской ССР была принята «Декларация о восстановлении государственной независимости Латвийской Республики». Согласно этому документу, возобновлялось действие Конституции Латвии 1922 года (где, в статье 1 говорилось, что Латвия является независимой демократической республикой) и устанавливался де-факто переходный период до созыва Сейма^[21].

21 августа 1991 года Верховный Совет Латвии подтвердил независимость республики, приняв Конституционный закон «О государственном статусе Латвийской Республики»^[22].

6 сентября 1991 года независимость Латвии была признана Государственным Советом СССР.

17 сентября 1991 года Латвийская Республика стала членом ООН^[23].

10 февраля 1995 год Латвийская Республика становится членом Совета Европы^[24].

10 февраля 1999 года Латвийская Республика стала членом Всемирной торговой организации.

XXI век[править | править вики-текст]

В феврале 2004 года 19 стран-членов НАТО ратифицировали протоколы о вступлении Латвии в Североатлантический альянс, в мае того же года страна была принята в Евросоюз.

21 декабря 2007 года Латвия вошла в состав, а с 30 марта 2008 года полностью применяет правила Шенгенской зоны. 1 января 2014 года Латвия стала 18-м членом Еврозоны.

В первом полугодии 2015 года Латвия председательствовала в Совете Европейского союза.

2 июня 2016 года Латвия стала 35-м членом Организации экономического сотрудничества и развития (ОЭСР).

Государственное устройство[править | править вики-текст]

В Латвии действует конституция от 15 февраля 1922 года^[25]. Латвия — парламентская республика. Законодательный орган — Сейм (латыш. Saeima), избираемый полноправными гражданами Латвии, достигшими ко дню выборов возраста 18 лет, сроком на четыре года^[26], высшее представительство осуществляет президент государства (латыш. Valsts prezidents), избираемый Сеймом сроком на четыре года, исполнительный орган — кабинет министров (латыш. Ministru kabinets), состоящий из премьер-министра (латыш. Ministru prezidents) и министров. Кабинет министров формирует лицо, призванное к этому президентом государства^[27].

Политические партии[править | править вики-текст]

Латвия имеет многопартийную систему, партии имеют возможность формировать коалиционные правительства.

Последние парламентские выборы в Латвии состоялись 4 октября 2014 года^[28]. По итогам выборов в парламенте оказались представлены 6 партий (на прошлых выборах — 7), 4 из них были представлены также в парламенте прошлого созыва. Три политические силы являются партийными объединениями («Союз зелёных и крестьян», «Национальное объединение» и «Объединение регионов»); партия «Согласие» является членом блока «Центр согласия». 5 ноября, на второй день работы нового Сейма, было утверждено новое правительство во главе с предыдущим премьером Лаймдотой Страуюмой^[29]., с прежным составом правительственной коалиции. Представительство коалиционных партий в Сейме возросло — с 56^[30] до 61 депутатских места, из них 23 места получила партия «Единство».

Название на русском	Название на латышском	Идеология	Лидер	Депутаты	Основана
«Согласие»	латыш. Sociāldemokrātiskā partija «Saskaņa»	Социал-демократия	Янис Урбанович	24 (было 28)	2010
«Единство»	латыш. Vienotība	Консерватизм	Солвита Аболтиня	23 (было 20)	2010[~ 1]
Союз зелёных и крестьян	латыш. Zaļo un zemnieku savienība	Аграризм Центризм Зелёная политика	Аугустс Бригманис Раймондс Вейонис	21 (было 13)	2002[~ 2]
Национальное объединение «Всё для Латвии!» — «Отечеству и свободе/ДННЛ»	латыш. Nacionālā apvienība «Visu Latvijai!»—»Tēvzemei un Brīvībai/LNNK»	Национал-консерватизм	Райвис Дзинтарс Гайдис Берзиньш	17 (было 14)	2010[~ 3]
Объединение регионов Латвии	латыш. Latvijas Reģionu apvienība	Консерватизм	Мартиньш Бондарс	8 (ранее в Сейме представлена не была)	2014
Партия «От сердца для Латвии»	латыш. Partija «No sirds Latvijai»	Консерватизм	Ингуна Судраба	7 (ранее в Сейме представлена не была)	2014

Профсоюзы[править | править вики-текст]

Крупнейший профцентр — Союз свободных профсоюзов Латвии (Latvijas Brīvo Arodbiedrību Savienība).

Государственная символика, государственные праздники[править | править вики-текст]

Государственная символика Латвии регламентируется конституцией и действующим законодательством (Закон о государственном флаге, государственном языке, государственном гербе и государственном гимне).

Флаг Латвии представляет собой прямоугольное полотнище, разделённое на три горизонтальных полосы в пропорции 2:1:2 — карминно-красную наверху и внизу и белую посередине.

В немецкой Рифмованной хронике под 1279 годом упоминается знамя отряда ландесвера (ополчения) замка Венден (на территории современного города Цесис) — красное с белой полосой.

Гимн Латвии «Dievs, svētī Latviju!» (Боже, благослови Латвию!) написан латышским композитором Карлисом Бауманисом во второй половине XIX века, впервые был исполнен в 1873 году и стал гимном в 1921 году.

Герб Латвии — щит с восходящим солнцем на голубом фоне в верхней части, красным львом на серебристом фоне слева внизу и серебристым грифоном на красном фоне справа внизу^[31].

Дата	Русское название	Латышское название
1 января	День Нового года[32][33]	Jaungada diena
Великая пятница	Великая пятница[32][33]	Lielā piektdiena
Пасха	Первый и второй день Пасхи[32][33]	Pirmās un Otrās Lieldienas
1 мая	Праздник труда, День созыва Учредительного собрания Латвийской Республики[32][33]	Darba svētki. Latvijas Republikas Satversmes sapulces sasaukšanas diena
4 мая	День восстановления Независимости Республики Латвии[33]	Latvijas Republikas Neatkarības atjaunošanas diena
Второе воскресенье мая	День матери[32][33]	Mātes diena
Троица[32][33]	День Святой Троицы	Vasarsvētki
23 июня	День Лиго[32][33]	Līgo diena
24 июня	Янов день (праздник летнего солнцеворота)[32][33]	Jāņu diena
18 ноября	День провозглашения Латвийской Республики[32][33]	Latvijas Republikas Proklamēšanas diena
24, 25 и 26 декабря	Рождество (праздник зимнего солнцеворота)[32][33]	Ziemassvētki
31 декабря	День Старого года[32][33]	Vecgada diena

• Православные, старообрядцы и верующие других конфессий празднуют Пасху, Троицу и Рождество в установленные этими конфессиями дни^[32][33].
• Если праздничные дни — 4 мая и 18 ноября — выпадают на субботу или воскресенье, следующий рабочий день устанавливается выходным днём^[32][33].

Дата	Русское название	Латышское название	Примечание
20 января	День памяти защитников баррикад 1991 года[32][33]	1991. gada barikāžu aizstāvju atceres diena	(в этот день Рижский ОМОН взял штурмом МВД Латвийской Республики, в ходе боя имелись погибшие и раненые)
26 января	День международного признания (де-юре) Латвийской Республики[32][33]	Latvijas Republikas starptautiskās (de jure) atzīšanas diena	(26 января 1921 года страны Дружеского соглашения — Великобритания, Франция, Италия, Япония и Бельгия — признали независимость Латвии де-юре)
8 марта	Международный женский день[32][33]	Starptautiskā sieviešu diena
25 марта	День памяти жертв коммунистического геноцида[32][33]	Komunistiskā genocīda upuru piemiņas diena	(в честь памяти жертв депортации 1949 года)[34]
8 мая	День разгрома нацизма и День памяти жертв Второй мировой войны[32][33]	Nacisma sagrāves diena. Otrā pasaules kara upuru piemiņas diena
9 мая	День Европы[32][33]	Eiropas diena
15 мая	Международный день семьи[32][33]	Starptautiskā ģimene diena
1 июня	Международный день защиты детей[32][33]	Starptautiskā bērnu aizsardzības diena
14 июня	День памяти жертв коммунистического геноцида[32][33]	Komunistiskā genocīda upuru piemiņas diena	(в честь памяти жертв депортации 1941 года)[35]
22 июня	День памяти героев (День памяти Цесисской битвы)[32][33]	Varoņu piemiņas diena (Cēsu kaujas atceres diena)
4 июля	День памяти жертв геноцида против еврейского народа[32][33]	Ebreju tautas genocīda upuru piemiņas diena
Вторая суббота июля	День морских праздников[32][33]	Jūras svētku diena
11 августа	День памяти борцов за свободу Латвии[32][33]	Latvijas brīvības cīnītāju piemiņas diena
21 августа	День принятия Конституционного закона «О государственном статусе Латвийской Республики»[33]	Konstitucionālā likuma «Par Latvijas Republikas valstisko statusu» pieņemšanas diena
23 августа	День памяти жертв сталинизма и нацизма[33]	Staļinisma un nacisma upuru atceres diena
1 сентября	День знаний[32][33]	Zinību diena
Второе воскресенье сентября	День отцов[33]	Tēva diena
22 сентября	День единства Балтии[32][33]	Baltu vienības diena
1 октября	Международный день пожилых людей[33]	Starptautiskā veco ļaužu diena
Первое воскресенье октября	День учителя[32][33]	Skolotāju diena
11 ноября	День Лачплесиса[32][33]	Lāčplēša diena
Первое воскресенье декабря	День памяти жертв геноцида тоталитарного коммунистического режима, направленного против латышского народа[32][33]	Pret latviešu tautu vērstā totalitārā komunistiskā režīma genocīda upuru piemiņas diena	(в честь памяти жертв геноцида 1937—1938 годов против латышей в Советском Союзе)[36]

Внешняя политика[править | править вики-текст]

24 августа 1991 года РСФСР (тогда — часть СССР) признала факт восстановления независимости Латвийской Республики, и 4 октября Латвия и Россия возобновили дипломатические отношения. 6 сентября 1991 года независимость Латвии признана СССР^[37].

Латвия является членом ООН с 17 сентября 1991 года^[23], также является членом ЕС, НАТО, Совета Европы, Организации по безопасности и сотрудничеству в Европе, МВФ, ВТО, Совета государств Балтийского моря и Северного инвестиционного банка. Являлась членом Лиги Наций (1921—1940).

Латвия установила дипломатические отношения со 160 странами и поддерживает посольства в 35 странах мира. 37 стран имеют посольства в столице Латвии — Риге. Внешнеполитические приоритеты включают сотрудничество в Балтийском регионе, европейскую интеграцию, активное участие в международных организациях, участие в европейской и трансатлантической безопасности и оборонной структуры, участие в международных военных и гражданских операциях по поддержанию мира и развитию сотрудничества, в частности, укрепление стабильности и демократии в ЕС^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Латвия в своей внешней политике ориентируется на Евросоюз и НАТО. 1 мая 2004 года Латвия вступила в Евросоюз. Член НАТО с 29 марта 2004 года. С 21 декабря 2007 года Латвия вошла в Шенгенскую зону, контроль до 30 марта 2008 года сохранялся в аэропортах^[38].

В мае 2005 г. и в ноябре 2006 г., во время саммита НАТО, страну посетил президент США Джордж Буш^[39].

С 19 по 22 декабря 2010 года впервые за 16 лет состоялся официальный визит президента Латвии Валдиса Затлерса в Россию^[40]. Во время визита Валдис Затлерс встретился с президентом Российской Федерации Дмитрием Медведевым и премьер-министром Владимиром Путиным^[41].

В первой половине 2015 года Латвия была Государством-председателем Совета Европейского союза^[42].

Хронология событий «Латвия на пути в ЕС»[править | править вики-текст]

27 октября 1995 года правительство Латвии подало председательствующей в ЕС Испании официальную заявку на вступление в ЕС.

В 1997 году Европейская комиссия дала первые заключения о начале переговоров стран-кандидатов по вступлению в ЕС. Латвию на переговоры не позвали.

В 1999 году в Хельсинки пригласили Латвию начать переговоры о присоединении к ЕС, официальные переговоры начались в феврале 2000 года.

13 декабря 2002 года в Копенгагене Латвия с девятью другими странами-кандидатами завершили переговоры о принятии в ЕС.

16 апреля 2003 года в Афинах подписан договор о присоединении. Латвия, как и 9 других стран, из статуса кандидата перешла в статус будущей страны-участницы^[43].

На референдуме 20 сентября 2003 года 66,97 % граждан Латвии проголосовали за присоединение Латвии к ЕС. 32,26 % проголосовали против.

30 октября 2003 Сейм Латвии ратифицировал договор о присоединении Латвии к ЕС^[43].

1 мая 2004 года Латвия вместе с другими 9 странами: Эстонией, Литвой, Польшей, Словакией, Чехией, Венгрией, Словенией, Мальтой и Республикой Кипр стала полноправной страной-членом Европейского союза.

21 декабря 2007 года Латвия вошла в состав, а с 30 марта 2008 года полностью применяет правила Шенгенской зоны, которые подразумевают устранение пограничного контроля на внутренних границах между государствами, вошедшими в зону, и одновременно укрепление пограничного контроля с третьими государствами, граничащими с зоной.

Вооружённые силы[править | править вики-текст]

Национальные вооружённые силы Латвии — совокупность войск Латвийской Республики, предназначенных для защиты свободы, независимости и территориальной целостности государства. В 2004 году Латвия вступила в НАТО, а с 1 января 2007 года перешла к профессиональной армии.

Латвия участвует в международных миротворческих операциях и операций по обеспечению безопасности. Также латвийские специалисты внесли свой вклад в гражданские миссии.

Численность армии составляет 5500 военных, резерв — 10 000 человек. Армия сведена в 2 пехотных батальона и 18 батальонов Земессардзе^[44] — добровольческого военизированного формирования, входящего в структуру Минобороны^[45][46].

С 1996 года более 3600 военнослужащих приняли участие в международных операциях, 7 из них погибли.

Резерв НВС составляют прошедшие воинскую службу граждане Латвии.

Руководство Национальными вооружёнными силами Латвии осуществляет министр обороны, по предложениям командующего вооружёнными силами.

Состав вооружённых сил[править | править вики-текст]

Административное деление[править | править вики-текст]

Латвия является унитарным государством, административно делящимся на 119 одноуровневых самоуправлений — 110 краёв и 9 республиканских городов (Рига, Даугавпилс, Лиепая, Елгава, Юрмала, Вентспилс, Резекне, Валмиера, Екабпилс). Края территориально делятся на волости и краевые города или вовсе не имеют внутреннего деления.

До окончания административно-территориальной реформы в 2009 году в Латвии существовало два уровня самоуправлений:

1. 26 районов и 7 республиканских городов;
2. несколько сотен волостей и районных городов, а также ряд созданных в рамках реформы краёв.

Согласно конституции, Латвия состоит из четырёх историко-культурных областей — Видземе, Латгалии, Курземе, Земгале, — не являющихся, однако, административно-территориальными единицами^[47].

Для статистического учёта в 2004 году были созданы статистические регионы — Рига, Пририжье, Видземе, Латгале, Курземе, Земгале. Для планирования регионального развития и сотрудничества самоуправлений в 2006 году также были созданы регионы планирования^[lv] — Видземский, Земгальский, Курземский, Латгальский и Рижский (границы которых отличаются от статистических регионов объединением Пририжья с Ригой).

Крупные города[править | править вики-текст]

В Латвии статус города присвоен 77 населённым пунктам, из них 9 имеют статус республиканских городов. Республиканские города выделены жирным шрифтом.

В таблице перечислены крупнейшие города страны численностью населения более 10 000 человек (по состоянию на 1 января 2015 года)^[48][49].

Герб	Город	Население (01.01.2015)	Исторический район
	Рига	641 007	Видземе
	Даугавпилс	86 435	Латгале / Селия
	Лиепая	71 125	Курземе
	Елгава	57 180	Земгале
	Юрмала	49 646	Видземе
	Вентспилс	36 274	Курземе
	Резекне	29 317	Латгале
	Огре	24 322	Видземе
	Валмиера	23 432	Видземе
	Екабпилс	23 019	Селия / Латгале
	Тукумс	17 563	Земгале
	Саласпилс	16 734	Видземе
	Цесис	15 666	Видземе
	Олайне	11 490	Видземе
	Кулдига	11 206	Курземе
	Сигулда	11 200	Видземе
	Салдус	10 771	Курземе

Физико-географическая характеристика[править | править вики-текст]

Географическое положение[править | править вики-текст]

Территория Латвии составляет 64 589 км² (122-е место по площади среди стран мира). Общая протяжённость границ — 1150 км. Омывается Балтийским морем (длина побережья — 531 км) и Рижским заливом на западе, граничит с Эстонией на севере (339 км), с Литвой на юге (453 км), с Россией (271 км) и Белоруссией (141 км) на востоке.

Рельеф равнинный, возвышенности перемежаются с низменностями.

Возвышенности: ^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}:

1. Видземская возвышенность (высшая точка — холм Гайзинькалнс, 312 м)
2. Латгальская возвышенность (высшая точка — холм Лиелайс Лиепукалнс, 289 м)
3. Алуксненская возвышенность (высшая точка — холм Делинькалнс, 272 м)
4. Куршская возвышенность (высшая точка — холм Криевукалнс (Русская гора), 189 м)
5. Аугшземская возвышенность (высшая точка — холм Эглюкалнс, 220 м)

Самая протяжённая низменность — Приморская.

Низменности: Среднелатвийская, Восточнолатвийская, Лубанская, Талавская, Куршская^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

12 тысяч больших и малых рек, около 3 тысяч озёр^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Самые длинные реки:

	Название	Бассейн рек	Длина по Латвии (км.)	Общая длина (км.)
1.	Гауя	Рижский залив	452	452
2.	Даугава	Рижский залив	352	1020
3.	Огре	Даугава	188	188
4.	Вента	Балтийское море	178	346
5.	Иецава	Лиелупе	155	155

Самые крупные озёра:

	Название	Площадь (км2)	Длина (км)
1.	Лубанс	80,70	15,6
2.	Разна	57,56	12,1
3.	Энгурес	40,46	17,9
4.	Буртниеку	40,07	13,3
5.	Лиепайское озеро	37,15	16,2

Самое глубокое озеро — Дридзис (65,1 м).

Основные природные ресурсы: песок, щебень, торф, доломит, известняк, глина, гипс^[50], водные ресурсы, лес. Ведётся разведка нефтяных месторождений на шельфе Балтийского моря и испытательная добыча нефти в Курземском регионе. На побережье Латвии иногда находят небольшое количество янтаря^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Климат[править | править вики-текст]

Климат имеет переходный характер от морского к континентальному, который смягчается близостью к Балтийскому морю. Преобладающие юго-западные ветра приносят со стороны Атлантики значительное количество осадков — 500—800 мм в год. Небо часто затянуто облаками, число солнечных дней — всего 30—40 в год. Самый солнечный и сухой месяц — май.

Лето часто прохладное и дождливое, выше нуля температура держится 125—155 дней в году. Средняя температура июля — 15—17 °C, иногда случаются аномалии (до 32 °C), как в середине 1990-х. Зима длится с середины декабря по середину марта. В январе средняя температура составляет от −3 до −7 °C, изредка падая до −40 °C^[51].

Средняя температура Латвии в 2011 г.[52]

Месяц

Янв

Фев

Март

Апр

Май

Июнь

Июль

Авг

Сен

Окт

Нояб

Дек

Средняя температура (°C)

-3.0

-8.9

-0.5

+6.8

+11.2

+17.3

+19.8

+16.8

+13.4

+7.8

+4.4

+2.1

Погодные рекорды в Латвии^[53]

Рекорд	Значение	Место	Дата
Самая высокая температура	37.8 °C	Вентспилс	4 августа 2014 года
Самая низкая температура	-43.2 °C	Даугавпилс	8 февраля 1956 года
Больше всего осадков за год	1007 мм	Приекульская волость	1928 год
Меньше всего осадков за год	384 мм	Айнажи	1939 год
Больше всего осадков за день	160 мм	Вентспилс	9 июля 1973 года
Самая высокая месячная норма осадков	330 мм	Ницская волость	Август 1972 года
Самая низкая месячная норма осадков	0 мм	Большая часть территории	Май 1938 года
Самый толстый снежный покров	126 см	Гайзинькалнс	Март 1931 года
Месяц с наибольшим количеством метелей	19 дней	Лиепая	Февраль 1956 года
Большинство дней с туманом за год	143 дня	Гайзинькалнская волость	1946 год
Самое высокое атмосферное давление	799,5 мм	Лиепая	Январь 1907 года
Самое низкое атмосферное давление	699,7 мм	Видземская возвышенность	13 февраля 1962 года
Большинство дней с грозами за год	52 дня	Видземская возвышенность	1954 года
Сильнейший ветер	34 м / сек, до 48 м / сек	Не указан	2 ноября 1969 года

Флора и фауна[править | править вики-текст]

Флора в Латвии развивалась примерно 10—15 тыс. лет после последнего ледникового периода.

Поля образовались из-за вырубки леса, постоянной косьбы или выпаса. Естественные поля составляют всего один процент от территории Латвии. В полях описано 360 видов высших растений, но лишь 60 видов встречаются часто^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Болота занимают 10 % территории. Большая часть их расположены в Прибрежной низменности и Восточной Латвии. Болота начали образовываться уже с окончания ледникового периода, однако, большая их часть образовалась уже после ледникового периода. Они продолжают развиваться и по сей день, превращаясь в водоёмы или в высохшую местность^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

В Латвии описано 1304 собственных видов растений и 633 вида ввезённых^[54].

Фауна Латвии типична для Северной Европы. Млекопитающих насчитывается 62 вида, где 19 из них могут нечаянно забрести на территорию Латвии, к примеру: обыкновенный, или пятнистый, тюлень (Phoca vitulina), обыкновенная морская свинья (Phocoena phocoena) и средняя бурозубка (Sorex caecutiens). В Латвии встречаются примерно 300 видов птиц, некоторые являются редкими в других странах, например, орлан-белохвост (Haliaeetus albicilla), змееяд (Circaetus gallicus), чёрный аист (Ciconia nigra). Всего 29 видов рыб. Известно примерно 17 500 видов беспозвоночных животных, но возможно в Латвии могут встречаться ещё 12 000 видов^{[источник не указан 1947 дней]}. Количество видов рептилий и земноводных, из-за малопригодных для их жизни климатических условий, мало — всего 20 видов (13 видов земноводных и 7 — рептилий)^[55].

Экология[править | править вики-текст]

Природа Латвии довольно разнообразна, количество природных ресурсов на душу населения превышает среднеевропейские показатели. На одного жителя приходится в 10 раз больше земли, чем в Нидерландах, в 10 раз больше возобновляемых водных ресурсов, чем в среднем в мире. Лесных массивов в сотни раз больше на человека, чем во многих европейских странах. Умеренный климат и уравновешенные геологические условия защищают территорию от катаклизмов^[56].

В целом, экологическая обстановка благоприятная, производится регулярный экологический мониторинг. По данным на 2010 год, экология Латвии — лучшая среди трёх стран Прибалтики^[57]. В 2012 году Латвия заняла второе место в мире (после Швейцарии) по индексу экологической деятельности^[58].

• 

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Население[править | править вики-текст]

Численность, расселение[править | править вики-текст]

По состоянию на 1 мая 2016 года, численность населения Латвии составила 1 962 700 человек^[1].

По итогам общенациональной переписи, проведённой в марте — июне 2011 года, население Латвии составило 2 067 887 человек, а по оценочным данным, выведенным из расчёта существующих темпов роста населения, к августу 2015 года его численность сократилась до 1 978 300 человек^[1].

Плотность населения — 30,5 чел/км². В 2010 году 68 % населения проживало в городах^[59].

Согласно данным ЦСУ, в Латвии в 2008 году насчитывалось 2 миллиона 261 тысяча человек, что на 9600 человек меньше, чем в 2007 году. Темп снижения численности населения составил 0,42 %.

В результате естественного сокращения населения, когда уровень смертности превышает уровень рождаемости, общее число жителей сократилось на 7,1 тысячи человек, а в результате миграции численность снизилась ещё на 2,5 тысячи человек.

Число жителей страны продолжает уменьшаться, несмотря на прирост рождаемости, который составил в 2008 году 4 % и стал самым высоким за последние 15 лет^[60].

Наибольшее количество выехавших граждан Латвии приходится на Ирландию и Великобританию.

Граждане Латвии[править | править вики-текст]

В Латвии на начало 2016 года проживало 1 804 392 граждан, составляя 84,1 % жителей страны^[61].

Неграждане Латвии[править | править вики-текст]

Неграждане (латыш. nepilsoņi) на начало 2016 года составляли около 252 тысяч. С юридической точки зрения — субъекты закона^[62] от 12 апреля 1995 г. «О статусе граждан бывшего СССР, не имеющих гражданства Латвии или иного государства» — лица, которые не являются и не были гражданами никакого государства, кроме СССР.

Половозрастные характеристики населения[править | править вики-текст]

По данным переписи (на 2000 год), в Латвии постоянно проживают 1 093 305 мужчин и 1 282 034 женщины. Средний возраст населения — 37,9 года (мужчины — 35, женщины — 40,4). За период между переписями 1989 и 2000 годов население Латвии явно постарело. Доля тех, кто моложе 15 лет, снизилась с 21,4 % до 17,9 %, а доля лиц в возрасте 60 лет и старше увеличилась с 17,4 % до 21,1 %^[63].

Этнический состав[править | править вики-текст]

Народы Латвии 1935—2011
Национальность	1935	1959	1970	1979	1989	2000	2011
Численность	%	Численность	%	Численность	%	Численность	%	Численность	%	Численность	%	Численность	%
Латыши	1 467 035	76,97	1 297 881	62,39	1 341 805	57,05	1 344 105	53,69	1 387 757	52,05	1 370 703	57,65	1 284 194	62,10
Русские	168 300	8,83	556 400	26,75	704 600	29,95	821 500	32,81	905 515	33,96	703 243	29,58	556 422	26,90
Белорусы	26 800	1,4	61 600	2,9	94 700	4,0	111 500	4,5	119 700	4,5	97 100	4,0	68 174	3,3
Украинцы	1 800	0,1	29 400	1,4	53 500	2,3	66 700	2,7	92 100	3,4	63 600	2,7	45 699	2,2
Поляки	48 600	2,6	59 800	2,9	63 000	2,7	62 700	2,5	60 400	2,5	59 500	2,5	44 783	2,2
Литовцы	22 800	1,2	32 400	1,5	40 600	1,7	37 800	1,5	34 600	1,3	33 400	1,4	24 426	1,2
Евреи	93 400	4,9	36 600	1,7	36 700	1,6	28 300	1,1	22 900	0,9	10 300	0,4	6 416	0,3
Цыгане	3 800	0,2	4 300	0,2	5 400	0,2	6 100	0,2	7 000	0,3	8 200	0,3	6 452	0,3
Немцы	62 100	3,3	1 600	0,1	5 400	0,2	3 300	0,1	3 800	0,1	3 500	0,1	3 023	0,1
Эстонцы	6 900	0,4	4 600	0,2	4 300	0,2	3 700	0,1	3 300	0,1	2 600	0,1	2 000	0,1
Другие	4 200	0,2	1 800	0,1	2 700	0,1	3 800	0,2	29 400	1,0	25 000	1,1	26 298	1,3
Всё население	1 905 936	2 079 948	2 351 903	2 503 145	2 665 770	2 377 383	2 067 887

Языки[править | править вики-текст]

Государственный язык — латышский. Распространённым языком также является русский, в некоторых регионах население использует латгальский язык.

Религиозный состав[править | править вики-текст]

По данным Управления по делам религий в Латвии зарегистрировано 14 религиозных объединений, включающих 719 общин и приходов (2006). В Латвии нет государственной религии, но большая часть русскоязычных исповедуют православие, преобладающее число верующих среди латышей запада и центра страны составляют лютеране, на востоке страны распространен католицизм. В Латвии есть и большая старообрядческая община, в основном в Латгалии. В целом общество толерантно к различным религиозным движениям, а церковь не оказывает значительного влияния на общественную жизнь^[31].

В 2006 году в Латвии находилось 769 зданий религиозного и культового значения.

Согласно докладу^[64] Министерства юстиции за 2012 год, количество прихожан в крупнейших религиозных организациях (больше 350 человек) было следующим:

• лютеране — 714 758 в ЛЕЛБ, 876 в небольших независимых группах (лютеране-немцы и лютеране аугсбургского толка);
• православные — 370 000; из неканонических организаций 240;
• католики — точные данные неизвестны, в 2008 года на странице католического Кафедрального собора указывалось 500 000 верующих;
• старообрядцы — 51 330; официально называется число членов приходов, обладающих правом голоса — 2345;
• баптисты — 7029;
• евангельские христиане — 4720 (две организации);
• адвентисты седьмого дня — 4034;
• пятидесятники — 3200;
• «Новое поколение» — 3020;
• новоапостольцы — 1273;
• мусульмане — оценивается до 1000; официально 340;
• мормоны — 815;
• методисты — 760;
• диевтури — 670;
• свидетели Иеговы — 461;
• Армия спасения — 391;
• иудеи — 378.

Экономика[править | править вики-текст]

Членство в Евросоюзе позволило Латвии заметно расширить торговые связи с европейскими государствами, особенно с Германией, Швецией и Великобританией^[65]. Россия остаётся традиционным торговым партнёром Латвии.

Преимущества: в последние годы 70 % ВВП за счёт сферы услуг.

Слабые стороны: энергоснабжение зависит от импорта нефти и газа. Уровень безработицы в 2009 году достигал 15 %.

.

Доля сектора услуг в ВВП Латвии составляет 70,6 %, промышленность — 24,7 %, сельское хозяйство — 4,7 %.

Основные экспортные товары Латвии (2011): электрические машины и оборудование — 6,9 %, машины и механизмы — 5,4 %, железо и нелегированная сталь — 5,2 %, пиломатериалы — 4,8 %, фармацевтическая продукция — 4,1 %, железные и стальные изделия — 3,2 %, первичная продукция из железа и стали (гранулированная и порошкообразная продукция) — 2,8 %, лес-кругляк — 2,6 %, трикотаж и текстиль — 2,5 %, цветные металлы и их изделия — 2,5 %^[66].

Латвия подписала соглашение с Литвой и Эстонией об учреждении таможенного союза, и поэтому объём торговли между этими странами достаточно большой.

История экономики[править | править вики-текст]

За прошедшие после восстановления независимости годы Латвия провела серьёзные экономические реформы, восстановила в обращении собственную валюту лат в 1992 году, провела приватизацию и вернула собственность прежним владельцам (реституция).

Экономика стабильно поднималась на 5—7 % в год (в 2006 — 12,6 %, 2007 — 10,3 %) до начала экономического кризиса.

По итогам 2007 года Латвия по темпам роста ВВП находилась на третьем месте на постсоветском пространстве. Опережали Латвию среди стран постсоветского пространства только Азербайджан и Армения.

Годовой рост ВВП:

	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008
Латвия	6,9 %	8,0 %	6,5 %	7,2 %	8,7 %	10,6 %	11,9 %	10,5 %	6,2 %
Data from International Monetary Fund

ВВП на душу населения:

	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004	2005	2006	2007	2008
Латвия	7,889	8,777	9,583	10,555	11,864	13,619	15,806	18,005	19,543
Data from International Monetary Fund

В 1999 году Латвия вступила во Всемирную торговую организацию (ВТО). В 2004 году Латвия вступила в Европейский союз (ЕС).

С 1 января 2014 года Латвия перешла на использование евро. 2 июня 2016 года Латвия стала 35-м членом Организации экономического сотрудничества и развития (ОЭСР).

Экономический кризис в Латвии[править | править вики-текст]

Латвия сильно пострадала от мирового экономического кризиса, начавшегося в 2007—2008 годах. В 2009 году ВВП Латвии упал на 17,8 % — самый плохой показатель динамики ВВП в мире^[67]. В 2008 году Латвия стала лидером среди стран Евросоюза по количеству населения, живущего на грани бедности, бедными были признаны 26 процентов населения^[68].

13 января 2009 года в Риге произошли волнения, в результате которых 20 февраля правительство Годманиса было распущено, а Годманис ушёл с поста главы правительства^[69].

Бурный рост цен на рынке недвижимости, связанный с лёгким получением ипотечных кредитов в латвийских банках и очень активной спекуляцией на рынке был одним из факторов роста инфляции, спровоцировал обвал на латвийском рынке недвижимости. Цены на жильё в Латвии во втором квартале 2008 года по сравнению с соответствующим периодом 2007 года обрушились на 24,1 %.

В результате антикризисных мероприятий в первом квартале 2012 года прирост внутреннего валового продукта (ВВП) по данным Центрального статистического управления по сравнению с тем же периодом 2011 года составил 6,8 %^[70]. В 2012 году Международный валютный фонд (МВФ) обнародовал первый доклад о надзоре после окончания программы финансовой помощи Латвии, в котором отмечал, что латвийская экономика переживает мощное оздоровление^[71].

Крупные предприятия[править | править вики-текст]

• AirBaltic — латвийская национальная авиакомпания. Удостоена Золотой премии «Авиакомпания года 2009/2010» и других наград.
• Aldaris — латвийская компания по производству пива и безалкогольных напитков.
• Dzintars — латвийская компания, выпускающая парфюмерию и косметику.
• Grindex — второе по величине^[72] фармацевтическое предприятие стран Балтии.
• Laima — латвийское предприятие по производству шоколадных изделий.
• Latvijas dzelzceļš — государственный железнодорожный концерн; является одним из крупнейших в стране: более 12 тыс. человек.
• Latvijas Finieris — крупное деревообрабатывающее предприятие.
• Latvijas Gāze — единственный в Латвии оператор по транспортировке (передаче), хранению, распределению и реализации природного газа.
• Latvijas Pasts — национальный оператор почтовой связи Латвии.
• Lattelecom — лидер в сфере оказания услуг электронной связи в Латвии.
• Latvenergo — самый большой поставщик электроэнергии в Латвии.
• Olainfarm — крупнейшее^[73] фармацевтическое предприятие стран Балтии.
• Rīgas piena kombināts — предприятие по переработке молока в молочные продукты.
• Rīgas Miesnieks — латвийское предприятие по производству мясных изделий.
• Rīgas Vagonbūves rūpnīca — одно из крупнейших машиностроительных предприятий на территории Латвии и бывшего СССР.
• Spilva — компания по переработке овощей и фруктов. Компания производит кетчупы, соусы, джемы, майонезы и др.

Инфраструктура[править | править вики-текст]

Автомобильный код Латвии — LV.

Транспортный сектор составляет около 14 % от внутреннего валового продукта. Транзит между Россией, Белоруссией, Казахстаном, а также другими западными и восточными странами.

В 2001 году газета New York Times писала: «Три прибалтийских государства получили значительные прибыли за прошедшее десятилетие за счёт оплаты Россией пошлин за транзит нефти и иных грузов через таллинский порт в Эстонии, рижский и вентспилский порты в Латвии и другие порты. Согласно оценкам российских экспертов, как минимум 25 % экономик Латвии и Эстонии связаны с торговлей. Эти прибыли были получены за счёт России»^[74].

В 1998—1999 годах на экспорт услуг транзитного транспорта приходилось 18—20 % ВВП Латвии^[75].

В Латвии 8 морских портов, из которых три самых крупных — Вентспилсский свободный порт, Рижский свободный порт и Лиепайский порт. Большинство транзитных перевозок составляет сырая нефть и нефтепродукты. Вентспилсский порт является самым оживленным портом в странах Балтии. Помимо дорог и железнодорожных путей, Вентспилс также являлся важным звеном в экспорте российской нефти через Балтийское море. По мнению экспертов, даже с увеличением перевалки российских грузов через российские порты, латвийские порты без работы не останутся^[76].

Рижский международный аэропорт самый крупный аэропорт в странах Балтии по объёму грузовых и пассажирских перевозок. В 2012 году аэропорт перевёз 4,7 млн пассажиров. Аэропорт имеет прямые рейсы более чем в 80-ти направлениях в 30 странах мира. AirBaltic является латвийской национальной авиакомпанией.

Латвия имеет три больших гидроэлектростанций: Плявиньская ГЭС (825 МВт), Рижская ГЭС (402 МВт) и Кегумсская ГЭС (192 МВт). В последние годы построено несколько десятков ветряных электростанций разного масштаба.

В Латвии находится Инчукалнское газохранилище, одно из крупнейших подземных хранилищ газа в Европе и единственное в странах Балтии. Уникальные геологические условия на Инчукалнсе особенно подходят для подземного хранения газа.

Связь[править | править вики-текст]

На территории Латвии действуют три оператора мобильной связи: LMT, Tele2 и Bite.

Образование[править | править вики-текст]

Среди жителей Латвии в возрасте 15 лет и старше доля лиц с высшим образованием выросла в 1989—2000 годах с 11,5 % до 13,9 %, со средним образованием — с 48,9 % до 51,1 %, с неполным средним (8 классов) — с 23,4 % до 26,5 %, с начальным (4 класса) — снизилась с 12,8 % до 6,1 %, а доля тех, кто даже не закончил 4 классов, упала с 3,4 % до 2,4 %. В 1897 году уровень образования жителей Латвии значительно превышал среднероссийский (тогда в Латвии в возрасте 9-49 лет были грамотны 79,7 % населения, а в Российской империи без Польши и Финляндии — лишь 28,4 %)^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Если же считать от числа всех жителей Латвии (включая детей в возрасте 7 лет и старше), то высшее образование в 2000 году имели 12,1 %, среднее специальное − 17,7 %, среднее общее — 27 %, 8 классов — 23,2 %, начальное образование — 11,4 %, меньше 4 классов — 8,6 %^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Группа «меньше 4 классов» включает 115 тысяч детей в возрасте 7-10 лет, посещающих начальную школу. Если исключить эту группу, то только 2,8 % населения имеют уровень образования ниже 4 классов. Самая высокая пропорция людей с высшим образованием в Риге (20,1 %), Юрмале (14,5 %) и Елгаве (13,5 %)^[63].

В стране действуют государственные школы с изучением ряда предметов на языках национальных меньшинств Латвии^[77].

Высшие учебные заведения[править | править вики-текст]

Латвийский университет Рижский технический университет Рижский университет имени Паула Страдиня Латвийский сельскохозяйственный университет Даугавпилсский университет Лиепайский университет Бизнес-школа «Туриба» Рижский институт аэронавигации Латвийская Христианская Академия Латвийская музыкальная академия имени Язепа Витола

Балтийская международная академия Институт транспорта и связи Латвийская Академия художеств Рижская Педагогическая Академия Институт Менеджмента Информационных Систем Высшая школа экономики и культуры Латвийская Морская Академия Латвийская академия культуры Латвийская спортивная педагогическая академия

Культура и искусство[править | править вики-текст]

После восстановления независимости в 1991 году Латвия столкнулась с проблемой реинтеграции трёх пластов латышской культуры. Первый пласт — это латышская литература и традиции до советских времен^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Пример критики Латвийской литературы в СССР, из БСЭ:

Латышская литература опиралась на богатые традиции родного фольклора — народных песен, сказок, легенд. Самое полное первое издание латышских народных песен «Латышские дайны» (т. 1—6, 1894—1915) составлено латышским фольклористом Кр. Бароном (1835—1923). «Песенки» (1856) Ю. А. Алунана (1832—64) положили начало латышской национальной письменной поэзии. Творчество представителей т. н. народного романтизма — Аусеклиса (М. Крогземиса, 1850—1879) и А. Пумпура (1841—1902), автора эпоса «Лачплесис» (1888), — носило ярко выраженный антифеодальный характер. В нём отразились идеи национально-освободительного движения. Первые значительные достижения латышской прозы — роман «Времена землемеров» (1879) братьев Матиса (1848—1926) и Рейниса (1839—1920) Каудзит и рассказы Апсишу Екаба (Я. Яунземиса, 1858—1929) о жизни деревни. Творчество латышских писателей испытывало влияние русского реализма. Начало латышской драматургии положил А. Алунан (1848—1912) в 1870—1880-х гг.

Второй пласт латышской культуры сформировался после 1945 году за пределами Латвии среди приблизительно 120 тыс. эмигрантов, создавших латышские общины в Швеции, Германии, США, Канаде и Австралии. Оживленная культурная деятельность латышей, включавшая издание литературы, продолжалась во всех этих странах. Третий пласт представляла культурная жизнь в Латвии после 1945^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

До XIX века городская культура Латвии была по большей части продуктом немецко-говорящей политической и общественной элиты. Латышское крестьянство имело самобытные устные предания на собственном языке, состоявшие в основном из народных песен и былин. Заметным достижением национальной культуры было издание Эрнстом Глюком в 1694 году латышского перевода Библии. Другой важной вехой стало основание в 1822 первого периодического издания на латышском языке «Латвиешу авизес» («Латышская газета»)^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Взаимоотношения между городской и крестьянской культурами коренным образом изменились в середине XIX века, когда латыши, получившие университетское образование, такие, как Атис Кронвалдс (1837—1875), потребовали равноправия языков и призвали к созданию полноценной латышской литературы. К началу XX века такая литература появилась; в ней ощущалось влияние скандинавской, немецкой и русской литературы. Получили признание такие поэты, как Райнис (1865—1929) и Аспазия (Эльза Розенберга, 1865—1943)^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

Включение Латвии в состав Советского Союза привело к советизации всех сфер культурной жизни, включая систему образования. Новые поколения латышей воспитывались в убеждении, что советская латышская культура представляет собой высшую стадию национального культурного развития. Официально одобренным направлением стал социалистический реализм в литературе и изобразительном искусстве. Латышские мастера, работавшие на Западе, игнорировались или отвергались как декаденты или «буржуазные националисты». С увеличением численности русского населения все уровни системы образования стали развиваться по двум языковым направлениям — латышскому и русскому. Старая национальная культура Латвии трактовалась как отсталая и узкая по сравнению с «интернациональной культурой» Советского Союза^{[источник не указан 1188 дней]}.

В Советском Союзе проводилась плановая и целенаправленная работа по интеграции всех национальных культур. Составной частью этой работы были переводы национальных писателей на языки других народов СССР, в первую очередь на русский. Благодаря этой работе миллионы жителей СССР получили возможность познакомиться с национальной латышской литературой и другими достижениями латышской культуры. Книги латышских писателей: Лациса, Упита, Гривы, Судрабкална, Кемпе, Зиедониса, Григулиса, Скуиня, Вациетиса и мн. др. переведены на языки народов СССР: эстонский, литовский, белорусский, туркменский, узбекский, украинский, грузинский, казахский, киргизский и др., а также на иностранные языки. Общий тираж произведений Лациса на русском языке составил около 10 млн экз., а произведений Упита более 3 млн экземпляров^[78].

Радикальные изменения произошли во второй половине 1980-х годов. С приходом гласности издатели и писатели отбросили старые ограничения и стали публиковать запрещённые произведения. К 1989 году престиж писателей и журналистов значительно вырос благодаря средствам массовой информации. Одними из инициаторов создания Народного фронта Латвии стали деятели культуры, такие, как Янис Петерс (р. 1939), который в течение некоторого времени был латвийским послом в России^[79], и Виктор Авотиньш.

Кухня[править | править вики-текст]

Из блюд латвийской кухни, пользующихся популярностью, можно назвать кислый молочный суп, хлебный суп, а также путру и капусту. Путра — это густая хлебная похлёбка, сваренная из круп (чаще всего из перловой) и заправленная молоком или мясом и салом. Много разнообразных блюд готовят в Латвии из кочанной капусты, всевозможных свежих и квашеных овощей, свекольной ботвы, щавеля и других дикорастущих растений. Очень широко используют латвийские кулинары горох и бобы. Излюбленными блюдами считаются густая каша из гороха и бобов и перловой крупы. Очень вкусны отварной горох с жареным шпиком, а также круглые клёцки из гороха или бобов с пахтой или кефиром^[80].

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  Курземская выпечка Скландраусис, старинное блюдо латышской кухни.

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СМИ[править | править вики-текст]

Печатные СМИ[править | править вики-текст]

Периодические издания начали появляться в Латвии в начале XVIII века, одним из основоположников периодики был пастор Иоганн Трей.

Diena Neatkarīgā Rīta Avīze Latvijas Avīze The Baltic Times Вести Сегодня МК Латвия

Час (1997—2012) Ракурс (2003—2010) IR Baltische Rundschau Суббота[81]

Электронные СМИ[править | править вики-текст]

DELFI Apollo Meduza TvNet TvNet (Rus)

MixNews Gorod

LTV LTV1 LTV7 TV3 TV 3+

LNT TV5 Riga TV6 Latvia

• Kanāls 2

Спорт[править | править вики-текст]

Хоккей считается самым популярным видом спорта в Латвии. За сборную Латвии выступали такие хоккейные звёзды, как Хельмут Балдерис, Артурс Ирбе, Сандис Озолиньш, Сергей Жолток, Карлис Скрастиньш и другие. «Динамо Рига» является сильнейшим хоккейным клубом страны, клуб выступает в Континентальной хоккейной лиге. В 2006 году в Риге прошёл чемпионат мира по хоккею.

Баскетбол является вторым по популярности видом спорта в стране. В настоящее время наиболее известным латвийским баскетболистом является Кристапс Порзингис, который выступает в НБА.

Другие популярные виды спорта в Латвии: футбол, волейбол, теннис, велосипедный спорт, бобслей, санный спорт и тяжелая атлетика. Наивысшим достижением Сборной Латвии по футболу является выход в финальную часть чемпионата Европы 2004 года, где они смогли добиться ничьей с Германией и чуть не сотворили сенсацию в матче со сборной Чехии. Также популярен спидвей, в котором сборная Латвии в 2013 году впервые вышла в полуфинал Кубка мира по спидвею. Спидвейный клуб «Локомотив»^[82] находится в городе Даугавпилс.

Латвия участвует в зимних и летних Олимпийских играх. Наиболее успешным олимпийским спортсменом в истории независимой Латвии является Марис Штромбергс, который стал двукратным олимпийским чемпионом в 2008 и 2012 годах в соревновании по BMX среди мужчин.

Примечания[править | править вики-текст]

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