Таухид как пишется на арабском

«Tawheed» redirects here. For the Pharoah Sanders album, see Tauhid (album).

Tawhid (Arabic: توحيد‎, tawḥīd, meaning «unification of God in Islam (Allāh)»; also romanized as Tawheed, Tavhid, Tauheed or Tevhid^[2]) is the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in Islam.^[3] Tawhid is the religion’s central and single most important concept, upon which a Muslim’s entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God in Islam (Arabic: الله Allāh) is One (Al-ʾAḥad) and Single (Al-Wāḥid).^[4][5]

Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of submission.^[6] The first part of the shahada (the Islamic declaration of faith) is the declaration of belief in the oneness of God.^[4] To attribute divinity to anything or anyone else, is shirk – an unpardonable sin according to the Qur’an, unless repented afterwards.^[7][8] Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9]

From an Islamic standpoint, there is an uncompromising nondualism at the heart of the Islamic beliefs (aqidah) which is seen as distinguishing Islam from other major religions.^[10] Moreover, Tawhid requires Muslims not only to avoid worshiping multiple gods, but also to relinquish striving for money, social status or egoism.^[11]

The Qur’an asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique, independent and indivisible being, who is independent of the entire creation.^[12] God, according to Islam, is a universal God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one—God is an absolute, who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil.^[7]

Islamic intellectual history can be understood as a gradual unfolding of the manner in which successive generations of believers have understood the meaning and implications of professing God’s Unity. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it. Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, Sufism, even to some degree the Islamic understanding of natural sciences, all seek to explain at some level the principle of tawhid.^[13]

The classical definition of tawhid was limited to declaring or preferring belief in one God and the unity of God.^[14] Although the monotheistic definition has persisted into modern Arabic, it is now more generally used to connote «unification, union, combination, fusion; standardization, regularization; consolidation, amalgamation, merger».^[15]

Chapter 112 of the Quran, titled Al-‘Ikhlās (The Sincerity) reads:

Say: «He is Allah, [who is] One.
Allah, the Eternal Refuge.
He neither begets nor is born,
Nor is there to Him any equivalent.»^[16]

Etymology[edit]

According to Edward Lane’s Lexicon on classical Arabic, tawhid is an infinite noun that means «He asserted, or declared, God to be one; he asserted, declared, or preferred belief in the unity of God» and is derived from the Arabic verb wahhada, which means «He made it one; or called it one».^[14] In modern Arabic, the verbs wahhada or yuwahhidu mean «to unite» or «bring together» something which was not one before. This reflects the struggle of monotheism against polytheism.^[17][18]

Name of God in Islam[edit]

In order to explain the complexity of the unity of God and of the divine nature, the Qur’an uses 99 terms referred to as «Excellent Names of God» (Sura 7:180).The divine names project divine attributes, which, in turn, project all the levels of the creation down to the physical plane.^[19] Aside from the supreme name «Allah» and the neologism ar-Rahman (referring to the divine beneficence that creates and maintains the universe) and a few other specific names like al-Maalik al-Mulook («King of Kings») in an authentic narration of Muhammad, other names may be shared by both God and human beings. According to the Islamic teachings, the latter is meant to serve as a reminder of God’s immanence rather than being a sign of one’s divinity or alternatively imposing a limitation on God’s transcendent nature. Attribution of divinity to a created entity, shirk, is considered a denial of the truth of God and thus a major sin.^[12]

Shirk[edit]

Associating partners in divinity of God is known as shirk and is the antithesis of Tawhid. It is always in the form of belief in polytheism. The term shirk is used in two senses : to mean both polytheism and something that is not polytheism but a certain form of sin.^{[citation needed]}

• Greater shirk (Shirk-al-Akbar): open and apparent;
• Lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar): concealed or hidden.

Shirk. A person commits lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar) when he claims to believe in God but his thoughts and actions do not reflect his belief. There are also minor forms of shirk, they must be avoided as well; these include committing a good deed to show off, making an oath in the name of anyone except God^{[citation needed]}. Within Islam, shirk (polytheism) is an unforgivable crime; God may forgive any sin if one dies in that state except for committing shirk, repentance is required for its forgiveness.^{[citation needed]}

Chapter 4, verse 48 of the Qur’an reads:

«God does not forgive the joining of partners with Him: anything less than that He forgives to whoever He will, but anyone who joins partners with God has concocted a tremendous sin.»^[20]

— Holy Qur’aan [4:48]

Chapter 4, verse 116 of the Qur’an reads:

«Indeed, Allah does not forgive association with Him, but He forgives what is less than that for whom He wills. And he who associates others with Allah has certainly gone far astray.»

— Holy Qur’aan [4:116]

Discerning the unity of God[edit]

According to Hossein Nasr, Ali, the first imam (Shia view) and fourth Rashid Caliph (Sunni view), is credited with having established Islamic theology. His quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God.^[21]

Ali states that «God is One» means that God is away from likeness and numeration and he is not divisible even in imagination.^[22]

The first step of religion is to accept, understand and realize him as the Lord… The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person.^[23]

Vincent J. Cornell, a scholar of Islamic studies quotes the following statement from Ali:

To know God is to know his oneness. To say that God is one has four meanings: two of them are false and two are correct. As for the two meanings that are false, one is that a person should say «God is one» and be thinking of a number and counting. This is false because that which has no second cannot enter into the category of number. Do you not see that those who say that God is a third of a trinity fall into this infidelity? Another meaning is to say, «So-and-So is one of his people», namely, a species of this genus or a member of this species. This meaning is also false when applied to God, because it implies likening something to God, whereas God is above all likeness. As to the two meanings that are correct when applied to God, one is that it should be said that «God is one» in the sense that there is no likeness to him among things. Another is to say that «God is one» in the sense that there is no multiplicity or division conceivable in Him, neither outwardly, nor in the mind, nor in the imagination. God alone possesses such a unity.^[12]

Arguments for the oneness of God[edit]

Theological[edit]

Theologians usually use reason and deduction to prove the existence, unity and oneness of God. They use a teleological argument for the existence of God as a creator based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design, or direction—or some combination of these—in nature. Teleology is the supposition that there is a purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.^[24]

Another argument which is used frequently by theologians is Reductio ad absurdum. They use it instead of positive arguments as a more efficient way to reject the ideas of opponents.^[25]

God as the cause of causes[edit]

Against the polytheism of pre-Islamic Arabia, the Qur’an argues that the knowledge of God as the creator of everything rules out the possibility of lesser gods since these beings must be themselves created. For the Qur’an, God is an immanent and transcendent deity who actively creates, maintains and destroys the universe. The reality of God as the ultimate cause of things is the belief that God is veiled from human understanding because of the secondary causes and contingent realities of things in the world.^[12] Thus the belief in the oneness of God is equated in the Qur’an with the «belief in the unseen» (Sura 2:3).^[12] The Qur’an summarizes its task in making this «unseen», to a greater or lesser degree «seen» so that belief in the existence of God becomes a Master-Truth rather than an unreasonable belief. The Qur’an states that God’s signals are so near and yet so far, demanding that its students listen to what it has to say with humility (Sura 50:33, Sura 50:37). The Qur’an draws attention to certain observable facts, to present them as «reminders» of God instead of providing lengthy «theological» proofs for the existence and unity of God.^[26]

Ash’ari theologians rejected cause and effect in essence, but accepted it as something that facilitates humankind’s investigation and comprehension of natural processes. These medieval scholars argued that nature was composed of uniform atoms that were «re-created» at every instant by God. The laws of nature were only the customary sequence of apparent causes (customs of God), the ultimate cause of each accident being God himself.^[27][28] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful.

Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence.

God as the necessary existent[edit]

An ontological argument for the existence of God was first proposed by Avicenna (965-1037) in the Metaphysics section of The Book of Healing^[29][30] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful. Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.^[31]

This was the first attempt at using the method of a priori proof, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. Avicenna’s proof of God’s existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a cosmological argument and an ontological argument. «It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent». The proof is also «cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent».^[32] Another argument Avicenna presented for God’s existence was the problem of the mind-body dichotomy.^[33]

According to Avicenna, the universe consists of a chain of actual beings, each giving existence to the one below it and responsible for the existence of the rest of the chain below. Because an actual infinite is deemed impossible by Avicenna, this chain as a whole must terminate in a being that is wholly simple and one, whose essence is its very existence, and therefore is self-sufficient and not in need of something else to give it existence. Because its existence is not contingent on or necessitated by something else but is necessary and eternal in itself, it satisfies the condition of being the necessitating cause of the entire chain that constitutes the eternal world of contingent existing things.^[31] Thus his ontological system rests on the conception of God as the Wajib al-Wujud (necessary existent). There is a gradual multiplication of beings through a timeless emanation from God as a result of his self-knowledge.^[34][35]

Indivisibility of God’s sovereignty[edit]

The Qur’an argues that there can be no multiple sources of divine sovereignty since «behold, each god would have taken away what [each] had created, And some would have Lorded it over others!»^[7] The Qur’an argues that the stability and order prevailing throughout the universe shows that it was created and is being administered by only one God (Sura 28:70-72).^[6][36]

The Qur’an in verse 21:22 states: «If there were numerous gods instead of one, [the heavens and the earth] would be in a sorry state». Later Muslim theologians elaborated on this verse saying that the existence of at least two gods would inevitably arise between them, at one time or another, a conflict of wills. Since two contrary wills could not possibly be realized at the same time, one of them must admit himself powerless in that particular instance. On the other hand, a powerless being can not by definition be a god. Therefore, the possibility of having more than one god is ruled out.^[6][36] For if a God is powerful above another, then this asserts a difference in the particular attributes that are confined to the essence of Godhood, which implies the lesser God must lack in certain necessary attributes deeming this deity as anthropomorphic and snatching away the title of a god from such entity.

Other arguments[edit]

The Qur’an argues that human beings have an instinctive distaste for polytheism: At times of crisis, for example, even the idolaters forget the false deities and call upon the one true God for help. As soon as they are relieved from the danger, they however start associating other beings with God. «So when they ride in the ships they call upon Allah, being sincerely obedient to Him, but when He brings them safe to the land, lo! they associate others (with Him)» (Sura 29:65).^[36]

Next, the Qur’an argues that polytheism takes away from human dignity: God has honored human beings and given them charge of the physical world, and yet they disgrace their position in the world by worshipping what they carve out with their own hands.^[36]

Lastly, the Qur’an argues that monotheism is not a later discovery made by the human race, but rather there is the combined evidence of the prophetic call for monotheism throughout human history starting from Adam. The Qur’an suggests several causes for deviation from monotheism to polytheism: Great temporal power, regarded by the holder and his subjects as ‘absolute’ — may lead the holder to think that he is God-like; such claims were commonly forced upon, and accepted by, those who were subject to the ruler. Also, certain natural phenomena (such as the sun, the moon and the stars) inspire feelings of awe, wonder or admiration that could lead some to regard these celestial bodies as deities. Another reason for deviation from monotheism is when one becomes a slave to his or her base desires and passions. In seeking to always satisfy the desires, he or she may commit a kind of polytheism.^[36]

Interpretations[edit]

Understanding of the meaning of Tawhid is one of the most controversial issues among Muslims. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it, comprising textualistic approach, theological approach, philosophical approach and Sufism and Irfani approach. These different approaches lead to different and in some cases opposite understanding of the issue.

Theological viewpoints[edit]

Certain theologians use the term Tawhid in a much broader meaning to denote the totality of discussion of God, his existence and his various attributes. Others go yet further and use the term to ultimately represent the totality of the «principles of religion». In its current usage, the expressions «Tawhid» or «knowledge of Tawhid» are sometimes used as an equivalent for the whole Kalam, the Islamic theology.^[6]

According to Sunni Islam, the orthodox understanding of theology is taken directly from the teachings of Muhammad with the understanding and methodology of his companions, sourced directly from the revealed scripture the Qur’an; being the main information source for understanding the oneness of God in Islam. All Muslim authorities maintain that a true understanding of God is impossible unless He introduces Himself due to the fact that God is beyond the range of human vision and senses.^[37] Therefore, God tells people who He is by speaking through the prophets. According to this view, the fundamental message of all of the prophets is: «There is no god worthy of worship except Allah (avoiding the false gods as stated in Surah hud).»^[38]

Athari/Salafi approach[edit]

The approach of textual interpretation in Islam is to avoid delving into theological speculation and did not employ the use of kalam.^[39] After exposure of the early Muslim community to challenges from Hellenistic philosophy, Sunni Muslims later developed codified theological frameworks (see Ash’ari) to uphold and defend their beliefs.

Mu’tazili school[edit]

The Mu’tazilis liked to call themselves the men of the tawhid (ahl al-tawhid). In Maqalat al-Islamiyin, Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari describes the Mu’tazilite conception of the tawhid as follows:^[40]

God is unique, nothing is like him; he is neither body, nor individual, nor substance, nor accident. He is beyond time. He cannot dwell in a place or within a being; he is not the object of any creatural attribute or qualification. He is neither conditioned nor determined, neither engendered nor engendering. He is beyond the perception of the senses. The eyes cannot see him, observation cannot attain him, the imagination cannot comprehend him. He is a thing, but he is not like other things; he is omniscient, all-powerful, but his omniscience and his all-mightiness cannot be compared to anything created. He created the world without any pre-established archetype and without an auxiliary.

According to Henry Corbin, the result of this interpretation is the negation of the divine attributes, the affirmation of the created Quran, and the denial of all possibility of the vision of God in the world beyond.^[41] Mu’tazilis believed that God is deprived of all positive attributes, in the sense that all divine qualifications must be understood as being the essence itself, and declaring that God is existing ubiquitously and in everything.^[42] They resorted to metaphorical interpretations of Qur’anic verses or Prophetic reports with seemingly anthropomorphic content, e.g., the hand is the metaphorical designation of power; the face signifies the essence; the fact that God is seated on the Throne is a metaphorical image of the divine reign, and so on.^[43]

Ash’ari school[edit]

The solution proposed by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari to solve the problems of tashbih and ta’til concedes that the divine Being possesses in a real sense the Attributes and Names mentioned in the Qur’an. Insofar as these Names and Attributes have a positive reality, they are distinct from the essence, but nevertheless they do not have either existence or reality apart from it. The inspiration of al-Ash’ari in this matter was on the one hand to distinguish essence and attribute as concepts, and on the other hand to see that the duality between essence and attribute should be situated not on the quantitative but on the qualitative level—something which Mu’tazilis thinking had failed to grasp.^[44]

Ash’ari theology, which dominated Sunni Islam from the tenth to the nineteenth century, insists on ultimate divine transcendence and holds that divine unity is not accessible to human reason. Ash’arism teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, and on such questions as God’s creation of evil and the apparent anthropomorphism of God’s attributes, revelation has to accepted bila kayfa (without [asking] how).^[45]

Twelvers theology[edit]

Twelvers theology is based on the Hadith which have been narrated from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the first, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth Imams and compiled by Shia scholars such as Al-Shaykh al-Saduq in al-Tawhid.^{[46][verification needed]}
According to Shia theologians, the attributes and names of God have no independent and hypostatic existence apart from the being and essence of God. Any suggestion of these attributes and names being conceived of as separate is thought to entail polytheism. It would be even incorrect to say God knows by his knowledge which is in his essence but God knows by his knowledge which is his essence. Also, God has no physical form, and he is imperceptible.^[47]

Twelvers believe God is alone in being, along with his names, his attributes, his actions, his theophanies. The totality of being therefore is he, through him, comes from him, and returns to him. God is not a being next to or above other beings, his creatures; he is being, the absolute act of being (wujud mutlaq). For, if there were being other than he (i.e., creatural being), God would no longer be the Unique, i.e., the only one to be.^[48] As this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence, Essentially there is one Reality which is one and indivisible.^[49] The border between theoretical Tawhid and Shirk is to know that every reality and being in its essence, attributes and action are from him (from Him-ness), it is Tawhid. Every supernatural action of the prophets is by God’s permission as Quran points to it. The border between the Tawhid and Shirk in practice is to assume something as an end in itself, independent from God, not as a road to God (to Him-ness).^[50]

Philosophical viewpoints[edit]

Al-Farabi, Al-Razi and especially Avicenna put forward an interpretation of Tawhid in light of reason, with the Qur’an and Hadith serving as a basis. Before Avicenna the discussions among Muslim philosophers were about the unity of God as divine creator and his relationship with the world as creation. The earlier philosophers were profoundly affected by the emphasis of Plotinus on Divine simplicity.^[51]

َWhether this view can be reconciled with Islam, particularly given the question of what role is left for God’s will, was to become a subject of considerable controversy within intellectual Islamic discourse.

Sufi and Irfani viewpoint[edit]

In Islamic mysticism (Sufism and Irfan), Tawhid is not only the affirmation in speech of God’s unity, but also as importantly a practical and existential realization of that unity. This is done by rejecting the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity, to isolate the eternal from the temporal in a practical way. The ideal is a radical purification from all worldliness.^[52] According to Vincent J. Cornall, it is possible to draw up a monist image of God (see Sufi metaphysics) by describing the reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things: «He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent: and He has full knowledge of all things.»(Sura 57:3)»^[12] However many Muslims criticize monism for it blurs the distinction between the creator and the creature, something incompatible with the genuine and absolute monotheism of Islam.^[53]

For Muslim mystics (sufis), the affirmation in speech of God’s unity is only the first step of Tawhid. Further steps involve a spiritual experience for the existential realization of that unity. Categorizations of different steps of Tawhid could be found in the works of Muslims Sufis like Junayd Baghdadi and al-Ghazali. It involves a practical rejection of the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity.^[52] Al-Junayd for example «distinguishes four steps, starting from the simple attestation of unicity which is sufficient for ordinary believers, and culminating in the highest rank reserved for the elite, when the creature totally ceases to exist before his Lord, thus achieving al-fanā fi al-tawhīd [annihilation in unity]».^[6]

Annihilation and subsistence[edit]

According to the concept of Fana, Annihilation and Subsistence, «Man’s existence, or ego, or self-hood … must be annihilated so that he can attain to his true self which is his existence and «subsistence» with God. All of man’s character traits and habits, everything that pertains to his individual existence must become completely naughted and «obliterated» (mahw). Then God will give back to him his character traits and everything positive he ever possessed. But at this stage, he will know consciously and actually — not just theoretically — and with a through spiritual realization, that everything he is derives absolutely from God. He is nothing but a ray of God’s Attributes manifesting the Hidden Treasure.»^[54]

Unity of existence[edit]

The first detailed formulation of «Unity of Existence» (wahdat al-wujud) is closely associated to Ibn Arabi.^[55] Widely different interpretations of the meaning of the «Unity of Existence» have been proposed throughout the centuries by critics, defenders, and Western scholars. Ibn Arabi himself didn’t use the term «Unity of Existence» and similar statements had been made by those before him. For example, according to al-Ghazali «There is nothing in wujud [existence] except God…Wujud [Existence] only belongs to the Real One». Ghazali explains that the fruit of spiritual ascent of the Sufi is to «witness that there is no existence in the world save God and that ‘All things are perishing except his face’ (Qur’an 28:88)» ^[56][57]

Many authors consider being or existence to be the proper designation for the reality of God. While all Muslims believe the reality of God to be one, critics hold that the term «existence» (wujud) is also used for the existence of things in this world and that the doctrine blurs the distinction between the existence of the creator and that of the creation. Defenders argued that Ibn Arabi and his followers are offering a «subtle metaphysics following the line of the Asharite formula: «The attributes are neither God nor other than God.» God’s «signs» (ayat) and «traces» (athar)—the creatures—are neither the same as God nor different from him, because God must be understood as both absent and present, both transcendent and immanent. Understood correctly, wahdat al-wujud elucidates the delicate balance that needs to be maintained between these two perspectives.»^[57] Shah Wali Allah of Delhi argued that the Ibn Arabi’s «unity of being» was experiential and based on a subjective experience of illumination or ecstasy, rather than an ontological reality.^[58]

Influences on the Muslim culture[edit]

The Islamic doctrine of Tawhid puts forth a God whose rule, will or law are comprehensive and extend to all creatures and to all aspects of the human life. Early Muslims understood religion to thus cover the domains of state, law and society.^[59] It is believed that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9] In the following, we provide a few examples of the influences of Tawhid on the Muslim culture:

Interpersonal relationship[edit]

According to the Qur’an, one consequence of properly conceived relationship between God and man as the served and servant, is the proper relationship among humans. In order to achieve the former, the Qur’an consistently «reminds» men of two points: 1. That God is one; everything except God (including the entirety of nature) is contingent upon God. 2. With all His might and glory, God is essentially the all-merciful God.^[60]

Good and evil[edit]

According to the Qur’an, Allah is the progenitor of all things, both good and evil.^[61] As is written in the Qur’an, all of humanity is created at the will of Allah, both the good and the evil; and that their natures have been predisposed as such since the beginning of creation.^[62][63]

According to the Qur’an, Satan deviated from the oneness of Allah in the story of creation of man by permitting his own hierarchical value system to supersede Allah’s will: Allah asked the angels to bow to Adam, who he had created from clay. Satan refused, saying that «I am better than him; you created me from fire and created him from clay». The Medieval Muslim scholar, Al-Ghazali pointing out that the only legitimate «preference principle» in the sight of Allah is piety, writes: «Every time a rich man believes that he is better than a poor one, or a white man believes that he is better than a black one, then he is being arrogant. He is adopting the same hierarchical principles adopted by Iblis [Satan] in his jahl [ignorance], and thus falling into shirk [opposite of Tawhid].»^[64]

Secularism[edit]

In many jurisdictions of the world, the laws and the general attitude of the population hold that the sphere of public life should be secular,^{[citation needed]} and that belief in and practice of religion should remain in the sphere of private life.^{[citation needed]} One motive for adopting this stance has been to reduce the effects of conflict between followers of different religions or between adherents of secularism and those of a religion.^{[citation needed]} In public life, this view insists that the authority of the state prevails over any religious authorities.

For some Islamic thinkers, these propositions infringe the doctrine of Tawhid, and are therefore anathema. If the cosmos is a unified and harmonious whole, centered around the omnipotent and omnipresent God, they hold that recognising any other authority as superior is wrong. According to one writer: «Traditionally, a Muslim is not a nationalist, or citizen of a nation-state; he has no political identity, only a religious membership in the Umma. For a traditional Muslim, Islam is the sole and sufficient identification tag and nationalism and nation-states are obstacles».^[65] Hence the idea of creating a wholly Islamic state, or a revived caliphate.

In practice, nearly all Muslims^{[citation needed]} live their daily lives under some national jurisdiction and accept at least part of the constraints this involves.^{[citation needed]}

Islamic art[edit]

The desire to preserve the unity and transcendence of God led to the prohibition of Muslims from creating representation or visual depictions of God, or of any Prophet including Muhammad. Representations in art of the human form are a disputed matter in fiqh. The key concern is that the use of statues or images may lead to idolatry. The dominant forms of expression in the Islamic art, thus, became calligraphy and arabesque.^[59]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

«Tawheed» redirects here. For the Pharoah Sanders album, see Tauhid (album).

Tawhid (Arabic: توحيد‎, tawḥīd, meaning «unification of God in Islam (Allāh)»; also romanized as Tawheed, Tavhid, Tauheed or Tevhid^[2]) is the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in Islam.^[3] Tawhid is the religion’s central and single most important concept, upon which a Muslim’s entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God in Islam (Arabic: الله Allāh) is One (Al-ʾAḥad) and Single (Al-Wāḥid).^[4][5]

Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of submission.^[6] The first part of the shahada (the Islamic declaration of faith) is the declaration of belief in the oneness of God.^[4] To attribute divinity to anything or anyone else, is shirk – an unpardonable sin according to the Qur’an, unless repented afterwards.^[7][8] Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9]

From an Islamic standpoint, there is an uncompromising nondualism at the heart of the Islamic beliefs (aqidah) which is seen as distinguishing Islam from other major religions.^[10] Moreover, Tawhid requires Muslims not only to avoid worshiping multiple gods, but also to relinquish striving for money, social status or egoism.^[11]

The Qur’an asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique, independent and indivisible being, who is independent of the entire creation.^[12] God, according to Islam, is a universal God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one—God is an absolute, who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil.^[7]

Islamic intellectual history can be understood as a gradual unfolding of the manner in which successive generations of believers have understood the meaning and implications of professing God’s Unity. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it. Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, Sufism, even to some degree the Islamic understanding of natural sciences, all seek to explain at some level the principle of tawhid.^[13]

The classical definition of tawhid was limited to declaring or preferring belief in one God and the unity of God.^[14] Although the monotheistic definition has persisted into modern Arabic, it is now more generally used to connote «unification, union, combination, fusion; standardization, regularization; consolidation, amalgamation, merger».^[15]

Chapter 112 of the Quran, titled Al-‘Ikhlās (The Sincerity) reads:

Say: «He is Allah, [who is] One.
Allah, the Eternal Refuge.
He neither begets nor is born,
Nor is there to Him any equivalent.»^[16]

Etymology[edit]

According to Edward Lane’s Lexicon on classical Arabic, tawhid is an infinite noun that means «He asserted, or declared, God to be one; he asserted, declared, or preferred belief in the unity of God» and is derived from the Arabic verb wahhada, which means «He made it one; or called it one».^[14] In modern Arabic, the verbs wahhada or yuwahhidu mean «to unite» or «bring together» something which was not one before. This reflects the struggle of monotheism against polytheism.^[17][18]

Name of God in Islam[edit]

In order to explain the complexity of the unity of God and of the divine nature, the Qur’an uses 99 terms referred to as «Excellent Names of God» (Sura 7:180).The divine names project divine attributes, which, in turn, project all the levels of the creation down to the physical plane.^[19] Aside from the supreme name «Allah» and the neologism ar-Rahman (referring to the divine beneficence that creates and maintains the universe) and a few other specific names like al-Maalik al-Mulook («King of Kings») in an authentic narration of Muhammad, other names may be shared by both God and human beings. According to the Islamic teachings, the latter is meant to serve as a reminder of God’s immanence rather than being a sign of one’s divinity or alternatively imposing a limitation on God’s transcendent nature. Attribution of divinity to a created entity, shirk, is considered a denial of the truth of God and thus a major sin.^[12]

Shirk[edit]

Associating partners in divinity of God is known as shirk and is the antithesis of Tawhid. It is always in the form of belief in polytheism. The term shirk is used in two senses : to mean both polytheism and something that is not polytheism but a certain form of sin.^{[citation needed]}

• Greater shirk (Shirk-al-Akbar): open and apparent;
• Lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar): concealed or hidden.

Shirk. A person commits lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar) when he claims to believe in God but his thoughts and actions do not reflect his belief. There are also minor forms of shirk, they must be avoided as well; these include committing a good deed to show off, making an oath in the name of anyone except God^{[citation needed]}. Within Islam, shirk (polytheism) is an unforgivable crime; God may forgive any sin if one dies in that state except for committing shirk, repentance is required for its forgiveness.^{[citation needed]}

Chapter 4, verse 48 of the Qur’an reads:

«God does not forgive the joining of partners with Him: anything less than that He forgives to whoever He will, but anyone who joins partners with God has concocted a tremendous sin.»^[20]

— Holy Qur’aan [4:48]

Chapter 4, verse 116 of the Qur’an reads:

«Indeed, Allah does not forgive association with Him, but He forgives what is less than that for whom He wills. And he who associates others with Allah has certainly gone far astray.»

— Holy Qur’aan [4:116]

Discerning the unity of God[edit]

According to Hossein Nasr, Ali, the first imam (Shia view) and fourth Rashid Caliph (Sunni view), is credited with having established Islamic theology. His quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God.^[21]

Ali states that «God is One» means that God is away from likeness and numeration and he is not divisible even in imagination.^[22]

The first step of religion is to accept, understand and realize him as the Lord… The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person.^[23]

Vincent J. Cornell, a scholar of Islamic studies quotes the following statement from Ali:

To know God is to know his oneness. To say that God is one has four meanings: two of them are false and two are correct. As for the two meanings that are false, one is that a person should say «God is one» and be thinking of a number and counting. This is false because that which has no second cannot enter into the category of number. Do you not see that those who say that God is a third of a trinity fall into this infidelity? Another meaning is to say, «So-and-So is one of his people», namely, a species of this genus or a member of this species. This meaning is also false when applied to God, because it implies likening something to God, whereas God is above all likeness. As to the two meanings that are correct when applied to God, one is that it should be said that «God is one» in the sense that there is no likeness to him among things. Another is to say that «God is one» in the sense that there is no multiplicity or division conceivable in Him, neither outwardly, nor in the mind, nor in the imagination. God alone possesses such a unity.^[12]

Arguments for the oneness of God[edit]

Theological[edit]

Theologians usually use reason and deduction to prove the existence, unity and oneness of God. They use a teleological argument for the existence of God as a creator based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design, or direction—or some combination of these—in nature. Teleology is the supposition that there is a purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.^[24]

Another argument which is used frequently by theologians is Reductio ad absurdum. They use it instead of positive arguments as a more efficient way to reject the ideas of opponents.^[25]

God as the cause of causes[edit]

Against the polytheism of pre-Islamic Arabia, the Qur’an argues that the knowledge of God as the creator of everything rules out the possibility of lesser gods since these beings must be themselves created. For the Qur’an, God is an immanent and transcendent deity who actively creates, maintains and destroys the universe. The reality of God as the ultimate cause of things is the belief that God is veiled from human understanding because of the secondary causes and contingent realities of things in the world.^[12] Thus the belief in the oneness of God is equated in the Qur’an with the «belief in the unseen» (Sura 2:3).^[12] The Qur’an summarizes its task in making this «unseen», to a greater or lesser degree «seen» so that belief in the existence of God becomes a Master-Truth rather than an unreasonable belief. The Qur’an states that God’s signals are so near and yet so far, demanding that its students listen to what it has to say with humility (Sura 50:33, Sura 50:37). The Qur’an draws attention to certain observable facts, to present them as «reminders» of God instead of providing lengthy «theological» proofs for the existence and unity of God.^[26]

Ash’ari theologians rejected cause and effect in essence, but accepted it as something that facilitates humankind’s investigation and comprehension of natural processes. These medieval scholars argued that nature was composed of uniform atoms that were «re-created» at every instant by God. The laws of nature were only the customary sequence of apparent causes (customs of God), the ultimate cause of each accident being God himself.^[27][28] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful.

Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence.

God as the necessary existent[edit]

An ontological argument for the existence of God was first proposed by Avicenna (965-1037) in the Metaphysics section of The Book of Healing^[29][30] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful. Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.^[31]

This was the first attempt at using the method of a priori proof, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. Avicenna’s proof of God’s existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a cosmological argument and an ontological argument. «It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent». The proof is also «cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent».^[32] Another argument Avicenna presented for God’s existence was the problem of the mind-body dichotomy.^[33]

According to Avicenna, the universe consists of a chain of actual beings, each giving existence to the one below it and responsible for the existence of the rest of the chain below. Because an actual infinite is deemed impossible by Avicenna, this chain as a whole must terminate in a being that is wholly simple and one, whose essence is its very existence, and therefore is self-sufficient and not in need of something else to give it existence. Because its existence is not contingent on or necessitated by something else but is necessary and eternal in itself, it satisfies the condition of being the necessitating cause of the entire chain that constitutes the eternal world of contingent existing things.^[31] Thus his ontological system rests on the conception of God as the Wajib al-Wujud (necessary existent). There is a gradual multiplication of beings through a timeless emanation from God as a result of his self-knowledge.^[34][35]

Indivisibility of God’s sovereignty[edit]

The Qur’an argues that there can be no multiple sources of divine sovereignty since «behold, each god would have taken away what [each] had created, And some would have Lorded it over others!»^[7] The Qur’an argues that the stability and order prevailing throughout the universe shows that it was created and is being administered by only one God (Sura 28:70-72).^[6][36]

The Qur’an in verse 21:22 states: «If there were numerous gods instead of one, [the heavens and the earth] would be in a sorry state». Later Muslim theologians elaborated on this verse saying that the existence of at least two gods would inevitably arise between them, at one time or another, a conflict of wills. Since two contrary wills could not possibly be realized at the same time, one of them must admit himself powerless in that particular instance. On the other hand, a powerless being can not by definition be a god. Therefore, the possibility of having more than one god is ruled out.^[6][36] For if a God is powerful above another, then this asserts a difference in the particular attributes that are confined to the essence of Godhood, which implies the lesser God must lack in certain necessary attributes deeming this deity as anthropomorphic and snatching away the title of a god from such entity.

Other arguments[edit]

The Qur’an argues that human beings have an instinctive distaste for polytheism: At times of crisis, for example, even the idolaters forget the false deities and call upon the one true God for help. As soon as they are relieved from the danger, they however start associating other beings with God. «So when they ride in the ships they call upon Allah, being sincerely obedient to Him, but when He brings them safe to the land, lo! they associate others (with Him)» (Sura 29:65).^[36]

Next, the Qur’an argues that polytheism takes away from human dignity: God has honored human beings and given them charge of the physical world, and yet they disgrace their position in the world by worshipping what they carve out with their own hands.^[36]

Lastly, the Qur’an argues that monotheism is not a later discovery made by the human race, but rather there is the combined evidence of the prophetic call for monotheism throughout human history starting from Adam. The Qur’an suggests several causes for deviation from monotheism to polytheism: Great temporal power, regarded by the holder and his subjects as ‘absolute’ — may lead the holder to think that he is God-like; such claims were commonly forced upon, and accepted by, those who were subject to the ruler. Also, certain natural phenomena (such as the sun, the moon and the stars) inspire feelings of awe, wonder or admiration that could lead some to regard these celestial bodies as deities. Another reason for deviation from monotheism is when one becomes a slave to his or her base desires and passions. In seeking to always satisfy the desires, he or she may commit a kind of polytheism.^[36]

Interpretations[edit]

Understanding of the meaning of Tawhid is one of the most controversial issues among Muslims. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it, comprising textualistic approach, theological approach, philosophical approach and Sufism and Irfani approach. These different approaches lead to different and in some cases opposite understanding of the issue.

Theological viewpoints[edit]

Certain theologians use the term Tawhid in a much broader meaning to denote the totality of discussion of God, his existence and his various attributes. Others go yet further and use the term to ultimately represent the totality of the «principles of religion». In its current usage, the expressions «Tawhid» or «knowledge of Tawhid» are sometimes used as an equivalent for the whole Kalam, the Islamic theology.^[6]

According to Sunni Islam, the orthodox understanding of theology is taken directly from the teachings of Muhammad with the understanding and methodology of his companions, sourced directly from the revealed scripture the Qur’an; being the main information source for understanding the oneness of God in Islam. All Muslim authorities maintain that a true understanding of God is impossible unless He introduces Himself due to the fact that God is beyond the range of human vision and senses.^[37] Therefore, God tells people who He is by speaking through the prophets. According to this view, the fundamental message of all of the prophets is: «There is no god worthy of worship except Allah (avoiding the false gods as stated in Surah hud).»^[38]

Athari/Salafi approach[edit]

The approach of textual interpretation in Islam is to avoid delving into theological speculation and did not employ the use of kalam.^[39] After exposure of the early Muslim community to challenges from Hellenistic philosophy, Sunni Muslims later developed codified theological frameworks (see Ash’ari) to uphold and defend their beliefs.

Mu’tazili school[edit]

The Mu’tazilis liked to call themselves the men of the tawhid (ahl al-tawhid). In Maqalat al-Islamiyin, Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari describes the Mu’tazilite conception of the tawhid as follows:^[40]

God is unique, nothing is like him; he is neither body, nor individual, nor substance, nor accident. He is beyond time. He cannot dwell in a place or within a being; he is not the object of any creatural attribute or qualification. He is neither conditioned nor determined, neither engendered nor engendering. He is beyond the perception of the senses. The eyes cannot see him, observation cannot attain him, the imagination cannot comprehend him. He is a thing, but he is not like other things; he is omniscient, all-powerful, but his omniscience and his all-mightiness cannot be compared to anything created. He created the world without any pre-established archetype and without an auxiliary.

According to Henry Corbin, the result of this interpretation is the negation of the divine attributes, the affirmation of the created Quran, and the denial of all possibility of the vision of God in the world beyond.^[41] Mu’tazilis believed that God is deprived of all positive attributes, in the sense that all divine qualifications must be understood as being the essence itself, and declaring that God is existing ubiquitously and in everything.^[42] They resorted to metaphorical interpretations of Qur’anic verses or Prophetic reports with seemingly anthropomorphic content, e.g., the hand is the metaphorical designation of power; the face signifies the essence; the fact that God is seated on the Throne is a metaphorical image of the divine reign, and so on.^[43]

Ash’ari school[edit]

The solution proposed by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari to solve the problems of tashbih and ta’til concedes that the divine Being possesses in a real sense the Attributes and Names mentioned in the Qur’an. Insofar as these Names and Attributes have a positive reality, they are distinct from the essence, but nevertheless they do not have either existence or reality apart from it. The inspiration of al-Ash’ari in this matter was on the one hand to distinguish essence and attribute as concepts, and on the other hand to see that the duality between essence and attribute should be situated not on the quantitative but on the qualitative level—something which Mu’tazilis thinking had failed to grasp.^[44]

Ash’ari theology, which dominated Sunni Islam from the tenth to the nineteenth century, insists on ultimate divine transcendence and holds that divine unity is not accessible to human reason. Ash’arism teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, and on such questions as God’s creation of evil and the apparent anthropomorphism of God’s attributes, revelation has to accepted bila kayfa (without [asking] how).^[45]

Twelvers theology[edit]

Twelvers theology is based on the Hadith which have been narrated from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the first, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth Imams and compiled by Shia scholars such as Al-Shaykh al-Saduq in al-Tawhid.^{[46][verification needed]}
According to Shia theologians, the attributes and names of God have no independent and hypostatic existence apart from the being and essence of God. Any suggestion of these attributes and names being conceived of as separate is thought to entail polytheism. It would be even incorrect to say God knows by his knowledge which is in his essence but God knows by his knowledge which is his essence. Also, God has no physical form, and he is imperceptible.^[47]

Twelvers believe God is alone in being, along with his names, his attributes, his actions, his theophanies. The totality of being therefore is he, through him, comes from him, and returns to him. God is not a being next to or above other beings, his creatures; he is being, the absolute act of being (wujud mutlaq). For, if there were being other than he (i.e., creatural being), God would no longer be the Unique, i.e., the only one to be.^[48] As this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence, Essentially there is one Reality which is one and indivisible.^[49] The border between theoretical Tawhid and Shirk is to know that every reality and being in its essence, attributes and action are from him (from Him-ness), it is Tawhid. Every supernatural action of the prophets is by God’s permission as Quran points to it. The border between the Tawhid and Shirk in practice is to assume something as an end in itself, independent from God, not as a road to God (to Him-ness).^[50]

Philosophical viewpoints[edit]

Al-Farabi, Al-Razi and especially Avicenna put forward an interpretation of Tawhid in light of reason, with the Qur’an and Hadith serving as a basis. Before Avicenna the discussions among Muslim philosophers were about the unity of God as divine creator and his relationship with the world as creation. The earlier philosophers were profoundly affected by the emphasis of Plotinus on Divine simplicity.^[51]

َWhether this view can be reconciled with Islam, particularly given the question of what role is left for God’s will, was to become a subject of considerable controversy within intellectual Islamic discourse.

Sufi and Irfani viewpoint[edit]

In Islamic mysticism (Sufism and Irfan), Tawhid is not only the affirmation in speech of God’s unity, but also as importantly a practical and existential realization of that unity. This is done by rejecting the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity, to isolate the eternal from the temporal in a practical way. The ideal is a radical purification from all worldliness.^[52] According to Vincent J. Cornall, it is possible to draw up a monist image of God (see Sufi metaphysics) by describing the reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things: «He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent: and He has full knowledge of all things.»(Sura 57:3)»^[12] However many Muslims criticize monism for it blurs the distinction between the creator and the creature, something incompatible with the genuine and absolute monotheism of Islam.^[53]

For Muslim mystics (sufis), the affirmation in speech of God’s unity is only the first step of Tawhid. Further steps involve a spiritual experience for the existential realization of that unity. Categorizations of different steps of Tawhid could be found in the works of Muslims Sufis like Junayd Baghdadi and al-Ghazali. It involves a practical rejection of the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity.^[52] Al-Junayd for example «distinguishes four steps, starting from the simple attestation of unicity which is sufficient for ordinary believers, and culminating in the highest rank reserved for the elite, when the creature totally ceases to exist before his Lord, thus achieving al-fanā fi al-tawhīd [annihilation in unity]».^[6]

Annihilation and subsistence[edit]

According to the concept of Fana, Annihilation and Subsistence, «Man’s existence, or ego, or self-hood … must be annihilated so that he can attain to his true self which is his existence and «subsistence» with God. All of man’s character traits and habits, everything that pertains to his individual existence must become completely naughted and «obliterated» (mahw). Then God will give back to him his character traits and everything positive he ever possessed. But at this stage, he will know consciously and actually — not just theoretically — and with a through spiritual realization, that everything he is derives absolutely from God. He is nothing but a ray of God’s Attributes manifesting the Hidden Treasure.»^[54]

Unity of existence[edit]

The first detailed formulation of «Unity of Existence» (wahdat al-wujud) is closely associated to Ibn Arabi.^[55] Widely different interpretations of the meaning of the «Unity of Existence» have been proposed throughout the centuries by critics, defenders, and Western scholars. Ibn Arabi himself didn’t use the term «Unity of Existence» and similar statements had been made by those before him. For example, according to al-Ghazali «There is nothing in wujud [existence] except God…Wujud [Existence] only belongs to the Real One». Ghazali explains that the fruit of spiritual ascent of the Sufi is to «witness that there is no existence in the world save God and that ‘All things are perishing except his face’ (Qur’an 28:88)» ^[56][57]

Many authors consider being or existence to be the proper designation for the reality of God. While all Muslims believe the reality of God to be one, critics hold that the term «existence» (wujud) is also used for the existence of things in this world and that the doctrine blurs the distinction between the existence of the creator and that of the creation. Defenders argued that Ibn Arabi and his followers are offering a «subtle metaphysics following the line of the Asharite formula: «The attributes are neither God nor other than God.» God’s «signs» (ayat) and «traces» (athar)—the creatures—are neither the same as God nor different from him, because God must be understood as both absent and present, both transcendent and immanent. Understood correctly, wahdat al-wujud elucidates the delicate balance that needs to be maintained between these two perspectives.»^[57] Shah Wali Allah of Delhi argued that the Ibn Arabi’s «unity of being» was experiential and based on a subjective experience of illumination or ecstasy, rather than an ontological reality.^[58]

Influences on the Muslim culture[edit]

The Islamic doctrine of Tawhid puts forth a God whose rule, will or law are comprehensive and extend to all creatures and to all aspects of the human life. Early Muslims understood religion to thus cover the domains of state, law and society.^[59] It is believed that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9] In the following, we provide a few examples of the influences of Tawhid on the Muslim culture:

Interpersonal relationship[edit]

According to the Qur’an, one consequence of properly conceived relationship between God and man as the served and servant, is the proper relationship among humans. In order to achieve the former, the Qur’an consistently «reminds» men of two points: 1. That God is one; everything except God (including the entirety of nature) is contingent upon God. 2. With all His might and glory, God is essentially the all-merciful God.^[60]

Good and evil[edit]

According to the Qur’an, Allah is the progenitor of all things, both good and evil.^[61] As is written in the Qur’an, all of humanity is created at the will of Allah, both the good and the evil; and that their natures have been predisposed as such since the beginning of creation.^[62][63]

According to the Qur’an, Satan deviated from the oneness of Allah in the story of creation of man by permitting his own hierarchical value system to supersede Allah’s will: Allah asked the angels to bow to Adam, who he had created from clay. Satan refused, saying that «I am better than him; you created me from fire and created him from clay». The Medieval Muslim scholar, Al-Ghazali pointing out that the only legitimate «preference principle» in the sight of Allah is piety, writes: «Every time a rich man believes that he is better than a poor one, or a white man believes that he is better than a black one, then he is being arrogant. He is adopting the same hierarchical principles adopted by Iblis [Satan] in his jahl [ignorance], and thus falling into shirk [opposite of Tawhid].»^[64]

Secularism[edit]

In many jurisdictions of the world, the laws and the general attitude of the population hold that the sphere of public life should be secular,^{[citation needed]} and that belief in and practice of religion should remain in the sphere of private life.^{[citation needed]} One motive for adopting this stance has been to reduce the effects of conflict between followers of different religions or between adherents of secularism and those of a religion.^{[citation needed]} In public life, this view insists that the authority of the state prevails over any religious authorities.

For some Islamic thinkers, these propositions infringe the doctrine of Tawhid, and are therefore anathema. If the cosmos is a unified and harmonious whole, centered around the omnipotent and omnipresent God, they hold that recognising any other authority as superior is wrong. According to one writer: «Traditionally, a Muslim is not a nationalist, or citizen of a nation-state; he has no political identity, only a religious membership in the Umma. For a traditional Muslim, Islam is the sole and sufficient identification tag and nationalism and nation-states are obstacles».^[65] Hence the idea of creating a wholly Islamic state, or a revived caliphate.

In practice, nearly all Muslims^{[citation needed]} live their daily lives under some national jurisdiction and accept at least part of the constraints this involves.^{[citation needed]}

Islamic art[edit]

The desire to preserve the unity and transcendence of God led to the prohibition of Muslims from creating representation or visual depictions of God, or of any Prophet including Muhammad. Representations in art of the human form are a disputed matter in fiqh. The key concern is that the use of statues or images may lead to idolatry. The dominant forms of expression in the Islamic art, thus, became calligraphy and arabesque.^[59]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

«Единобожие» (Таухид / التَوْحِيد)

Определение:

Значение слова «таухид» (تَوْحِيد) в арабском языке:

Слово «таухид» происходит от арабского глагола «ваххада» (وَحَّد/يُوَحِّدُ), который значит: «уединять, делать что-либо/кого-либо одним, делать единственным».

Пример:

Если ты скажешь: «Пусть никто не выходит из дома, кроме Ахмада», то тем самым ты сделаешь Ахмада единственным (ваххада/ وَحَّد), кому позволено выходить из дома.

Если ты скажешь: «Пусть никто не встаёт со своего места, кроме Халида, только он», то тем самым ты сделаешь Халида единственным, кому позволено встать с места.

Таким образом, используется слово «таухид» (تَوْحِيد) в арабской речи.

Значение понятия «Таухид» (التَوْحِيد) в качестве шариатского термина:

Краткое определение:          

إِفْرَادُ اللهِ فِيمَا هُوَ مِنْ خَصَائِصِ اللهِ

Таухид – это убеждение в том, что все Его исключительные особенности принадлежат только Ему.

Подробное определение:  

إِفْرَادُ اللهِ بِالأُلُوهِيَّةِ وَ الرُّبُوبِيَّةِ وَ الأَسْمَاءِ وَ الصِّفَاتِ

Таухид – это убеждение, что Всевышний Аллах является Единственным в следующих аспектах:

1) Во «владычестве» (рубубийя/  الرُّبُوبِيَّة).

2) В праве на «поклонение Ему» (улюхийя/ الأُلُوهِيَّةِ).

3) В Своих «именах и качествах» (асма ва сыфат/ الأَسْمَاءُِ وَالصِّفَاتُ).

Разделы Единобожия

Наука о Единобожии имеет три раздела:

1) Единобожие во владычестве (Таухид ар-рубубийя/ تَوْحِيدُ الرُّبُوبِيَّةِ).

2) Единобожие в поклонении (Таухид аль-улюхийя/ تَوْحِيدُ اللأُلُوهِيَّةِ).

3) Единобожие в именах и качествах (Таухид аль-асма ва ас-сыфат/ تَوْحِيدُ الأَسْمَاءِ وَالصِّفَاتِ).

Разъяснение:

1) Единобожие во владычестве (Таухид ар-рубубийя) – это убеждение в том, что Аллах (Велик Он и Славен) является Единственным, кто 1 – создаёт, 2 – владеет, 3 – управляет мирозданием, 4 – наделяет уделом (ризк).

Также можно сказать, что Единобожие во владычестве – это убеждение в том, что Аллах является Единственным в Своих божественных деяниях, таких как: сотворение, наделение уделом (ризк), оживление, умерщвление, низведение дождей, проращивание растений … и т. д.

Доказательство:

Всевышний Аллах сказал:

أَلَا لَهُ الْخَلْقُ وَالْأَمْرُ

«Несомненно, Он творит и повелевает»^[1].

وَلِلَّهِ مُلْكُ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ

«Аллаху принадлежит власть над небесами и землей»^[2].

قُلْ مَن يَرْزُقُكُم مِّنَ السَّمَاءِ وَالْأَرْضِ أَمَّن يَمْلِكُ السَّمْعَ وَالْأَبْصَارَ وَمَن يُخْرِجُ الْحَيَّ مِنَ الْمَيِّتِ

وَيُخْرِجُ الْمَيِّتَ مِنَ الْحَيِّ وَمَن يُدَبِّرُ الْأَمْرَ  فَسَيَقُولُونَ اللَّهُ  فَقُلْ أَفَلَا تَتَّقُونَ

«Скажи: „Кто одаряет вас уделом с неба и земли? Кто властен над слухом и зрением? Кто мертвое превращает в живое, а живое превращает в мертвое? Кто управляет делами? ”. Они скажут: „Аллах”. Скажи: „Неужели вы не устрашитесь?”»^[3]

2) Единобожие в поклонении (Таухид аль-улюхийя) – это убеждение в том, что только один Аллах (Велик Он и Славен) достоин поклонения, только Ему люди обязаны посвящать свои обряды (’ибадат), такие как: молитва (намаз), пост (сыям), паломничество (хадж), упование (таваккуль), обет (назр), страх, надежда, любовь и т. д.

Доказательство:

وَمَا خَلَقْتُ الْجِنَّ وَالْإِنسَ إِلَّا لِيَعْبُدُونِ

«Я сотворил джиннов и людей только для того, чтобы они поклонялись Мне»^[4].

وَاعْبُدُوا اللَّهَ وَلَا تُشْرِكُوا بِهِ شَيْئًا

«Поклоняйтесь Аллаху и не приобщайте к Нему сотоварищей»^[5].

وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَا مِن قَبْلِكَ مِن رَّسُولٍ إِلَّا نُوحِي إِلَيْهِ أَنَّهُ لَا إِلَٰهَ إِلَّا أَنَا فَاعْبُدُونِ

«Мы не посылали до тебя ни одного посланника, которому не было бы внушено: „Нет божества [достойного поклонения], кроме Меня. Поклоняйтесь же Мне! ”»^[6]

3) Единобожие в именах и качествах (Таухид аль-асма ва ас-сыфат) – это убеждение, которое гласит, что Аллаху следует придавать те качества, которыми Он Сам себя охарактеризовал, и те которыми Его охарактеризовал Его Посланник (мир ему и благословение Аллаха). Это придание Ему безупречных качеств совершенства. При этом  мусульманин не должен пытаться постичь их глубинную суть и их свойства (такйиф), не должен уподоблять их (тамсиль) именам и качествам творений Аллаха, не должен искажать их (тахриф), трактуя их вопреки явному смыслу, содержащемуся в арабском языке, и не должен отрицать их (та’тыль), лишая их смысла.

Доказательство:

لَيْسَ كَمِثْلِهِ شَيْءٌ  وَهُوَ السَّمِيعُ الْبَصِيرُ

«Нет никого подобного Ему, и Он — Слышащий, Видящий»^[7].

وَلِلَّهِ الْأَسْمَاءُ الْحُسْنَىٰ فَادْعُوهُ بِهَا  وَذَرُوا الَّذِينَ يُلْحِدُونَ فِي أَسْمَائِهِ  سَيُجْزَوْنَ مَا كَانُوا يَعْمَلُونَ

«У Аллаха — самые прекрасные имена. Посему взывайте к Нему посредством их и оставьте тех, которые уклоняются от истины в отношении Его имен. Они непременно получат воздаяние за то, что совершали»^[8].

Аят содержащий в себе все три вида Единобожия:

رَّبُّ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضِ وَمَا بَيْنَهُمَا فَاعْبُدْهُ وَاصْطَبِرْ لِعِبَادَتِهِ  هَلْ تَعْلَمُ لَهُ سَمِيًّا

«Господь небес, земли и того, что между ними! Поклоняйся же Ему и будь стоек в поклонении Ему. Знаешь ли ты другого с таким именем (или подобного Ему)?» (Коран, сура 19, аят 65)

Полезные примечания:

1) Три раздела Единобожия взаимосвязаны между собой, каждый из них неразрывно связан с другим. И потому, кто выполнит одну грань Единобожия, и не станет соблюдать другую, тот не будет считаться единобожником (муваххидом)

2) Ты должен знать, что неверные язычники (кяфиры) с которыми боролся Посланник Аллаха (мир ему и благословение Аллаха) признавали Единобожие во владычестве (Таухид ар-рубубийя). Они признавали, что именно Аллах является Творцом, и что он наделяет людей уделом, даёт им пропитание, оживляет и умерщвляет, в Его власти польза и вред, Он управляет всеми процессами бытия. Тем не менее, данный факт не сделал их приверженцами Ислама, доказательством этому служат слова Всевышнего Аллаха:

قُلْ مَن يَرْزُقُكُم مِّنَ السَّمَاءِ وَالْأَرْضِ أَمَّن يَمْلِكُ السَّمْعَ وَالْأَبْصَارَ وَمَن يُخْرِجُ الْحَيَّ مِنَ الْمَيِّتِ وَيُخْرِجُ الْمَيِّتَ مِنَ الْحَيِّ وَمَن يُدَبِّرُ الْأَمْرَ  فَسَيَقُولُونَ اللَّهُ  فَقُلْ أَفَلَا تَتَّقُونَ

«Скажи: „Кто одаряет вас уделом с неба и земли? Кто властен над слухом и зрением? Кто мертвое превращает в живое, а живое превращает в мертвое? Кто управляет делами?”. Они скажут: „Аллах”. Скажи: „Неужели вы не устрашитесь?”»^[9].

3) Единобожие в поклонении (Таухид аль-улюхийя) – это и есть основная тема призыва всех пророков, потому что на этом фундаменте строятся все остальные деяния. Без выполнения этого раздела Единобожия никакие праведные дела не будут действительными. Потому что, при несоблюдении Единобожия в вопросе поклонения, человек непременно впадает в противоположность, то есть в многобожие (ширк).

Всевышний Аллах сказал:

وَلَقَدْ أُوحِيَ إِلَيْكَ وَإِلَى الَّذِينَ مِن قَبْلِكَ لَئِنْ أَشْرَكْتَ لَيَحْبَطَنَّ عَمَلُكَ وَلَتَكُونَنَّ مِنَ الْخَاسِرِينَ

«Тебе и твоим предшественникам уже было внушено: „Если ты станешь приобщать сотоварищей, то тщетными будут твои деяния и ты непременно окажешься одним из потерпевших убыток”»[10].

وَلَقَدْ بَعَثْنَا فِي كُلِّ أُمَّةٍ رَّسُولًا أَنِ اعْبُدُوا اللَّهَ وَاجْتَنِبُوا الطَّاغُوتَ

«Мы отправили к каждой общине посланника: „Поклоняйтесь Аллаху и избегайте тагута!”»[11].

Ось дискуссии между пророками и их народами пролегала именно через вопрос Единобожия (Таухид). Поэтому мусульмане должны уделять этой науке самое пристальное внимание, изучать связанные с ней вопросы, и постигать основы Единобожия.

Вопросы к уроку

1) Что значит слово Таухид в арабском языке?

2) Что значит «Таухид» в качестве шариатского термина?

3) Назови три раздела Таухида.

4) Что такое Единобожие во владычестве (Таухид ар-рубубийя/ تَوْحِيدُ الرُّبُوبِيَّةِ)?

5) Что такое Единобожие в поклонении (Таухид аль-улюхийя/ تَوْحِيدُ اللأُلُوهِيَّةِ)?

6) Что такое Единобожие в именах и качествах (Таухид аль-асма ва ас-сыфат/ تَوْحِيدُ الأَسْمَاءِ وَالصِّفَاتِ)?

7) Существует ли связь между Таухидом ар-рубубийя и аль-улюхийя, какова она?

Достаточно ли уверовать в один из разделов Таухида и не веровать в другие, обоснуй свой ответ?

9) Почему язычники в эпоху Пророка (мир ему и благословение Аллаха) не считались единобожниками, не смотря на  то, что верили, что Аллах это единственный Творец?

10) Какой из разделов Единобожия являлся первоочередным в призыве всех пророков?

11) Вспомни аят содержащий в себе упоминание о всех трёх разделах Единобожия.

Подготовил: Абу Ясин Руслан Маликов на основе
материалов из книги «ат-Таухид аль-муяссар»
(шейх Абдулла ибн Ахмад аль-Хувейль)
www.whyislam.to

• [1] Коран, сура 7 «аль-А`раф» («Преграды»), аят 54.
• [2] Коран, сура 3 «Аль ’Имран» («Семейство Имрана»), аят 189.
• [3] Коран, сура 10 «Юнус», аят 31.
• [4] Коран, сура 51 «аз-Зарият» («Рассеивающие»), аят 56.
• [5] Коран, сура 4 «ан-Ниса» («Женщины»), аят 36.
• [6] Коран, сура 21 «аль-Анбия» («Пророки»), аят  25
• [7] Коран, сура 42 «аш-Шура» («Совет»), аят 11.
• [8] Коран, сура 7 «аль-А`раф» («Преграды»), аят 180.
• [9] Коран, сура 10 «Юнус», аят 31.
• [10] Коран, сура 39 «аз-Зумар» («Толпы»), аят 65.
• [11] Коран, сура 16 «ан-Нахль» («Пчелы»), аят 36.

«Tawheed» redirects here. For the Pharoah Sanders album, see Tauhid (album).

Tawhid (Arabic: توحيد‎, tawḥīd, meaning «unification of God in Islam (Allāh)»; also romanized as Tawheed, Tavhid, Tauheed or Tevhid^[2]) is the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in Islam.^[3] Tawhid is the religion’s central and single most important concept, upon which a Muslim’s entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God in Islam (Arabic: الله Allāh) is One (Al-ʾAḥad) and Single (Al-Wāḥid).^[4][5]

Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of submission.^[6] The first part of the shahada (the Islamic declaration of faith) is the declaration of belief in the oneness of God.^[4] To attribute divinity to anything or anyone else, is shirk – an unpardonable sin according to the Qur’an, unless repented afterwards.^[7][8] Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9]

From an Islamic standpoint, there is an uncompromising nondualism at the heart of the Islamic beliefs (aqidah) which is seen as distinguishing Islam from other major religions.^[10] Moreover, Tawhid requires Muslims not only to avoid worshiping multiple gods, but also to relinquish striving for money, social status or egoism.^[11]

The Qur’an asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique, independent and indivisible being, who is independent of the entire creation.^[12] God, according to Islam, is a universal God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one—God is an absolute, who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil.^[7]

Islamic intellectual history can be understood as a gradual unfolding of the manner in which successive generations of believers have understood the meaning and implications of professing God’s Unity. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it. Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, Sufism, even to some degree the Islamic understanding of natural sciences, all seek to explain at some level the principle of tawhid.^[13]

The classical definition of tawhid was limited to declaring or preferring belief in one God and the unity of God.^[14] Although the monotheistic definition has persisted into modern Arabic, it is now more generally used to connote «unification, union, combination, fusion; standardization, regularization; consolidation, amalgamation, merger».^[15]

Chapter 112 of the Quran, titled Al-‘Ikhlās (The Sincerity) reads:

Say: «He is Allah, [who is] One.
Allah, the Eternal Refuge.
He neither begets nor is born,
Nor is there to Him any equivalent.»^[16]

Etymology[edit]

According to Edward Lane’s Lexicon on classical Arabic, tawhid is an infinite noun that means «He asserted, or declared, God to be one; he asserted, declared, or preferred belief in the unity of God» and is derived from the Arabic verb wahhada, which means «He made it one; or called it one».^[14] In modern Arabic, the verbs wahhada or yuwahhidu mean «to unite» or «bring together» something which was not one before. This reflects the struggle of monotheism against polytheism.^[17][18]

Name of God in Islam[edit]

In order to explain the complexity of the unity of God and of the divine nature, the Qur’an uses 99 terms referred to as «Excellent Names of God» (Sura 7:180).The divine names project divine attributes, which, in turn, project all the levels of the creation down to the physical plane.^[19] Aside from the supreme name «Allah» and the neologism ar-Rahman (referring to the divine beneficence that creates and maintains the universe) and a few other specific names like al-Maalik al-Mulook («King of Kings») in an authentic narration of Muhammad, other names may be shared by both God and human beings. According to the Islamic teachings, the latter is meant to serve as a reminder of God’s immanence rather than being a sign of one’s divinity or alternatively imposing a limitation on God’s transcendent nature. Attribution of divinity to a created entity, shirk, is considered a denial of the truth of God and thus a major sin.^[12]

Shirk[edit]

Associating partners in divinity of God is known as shirk and is the antithesis of Tawhid. It is always in the form of belief in polytheism. The term shirk is used in two senses : to mean both polytheism and something that is not polytheism but a certain form of sin.^{[citation needed]}

• Greater shirk (Shirk-al-Akbar): open and apparent;
• Lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar): concealed or hidden.

Shirk. A person commits lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar) when he claims to believe in God but his thoughts and actions do not reflect his belief. There are also minor forms of shirk, they must be avoided as well; these include committing a good deed to show off, making an oath in the name of anyone except God^{[citation needed]}. Within Islam, shirk (polytheism) is an unforgivable crime; God may forgive any sin if one dies in that state except for committing shirk, repentance is required for its forgiveness.^{[citation needed]}

Chapter 4, verse 48 of the Qur’an reads:

«God does not forgive the joining of partners with Him: anything less than that He forgives to whoever He will, but anyone who joins partners with God has concocted a tremendous sin.»^[20]

— Holy Qur’aan [4:48]

Chapter 4, verse 116 of the Qur’an reads:

«Indeed, Allah does not forgive association with Him, but He forgives what is less than that for whom He wills. And he who associates others with Allah has certainly gone far astray.»

— Holy Qur’aan [4:116]

Discerning the unity of God[edit]

According to Hossein Nasr, Ali, the first imam (Shia view) and fourth Rashid Caliph (Sunni view), is credited with having established Islamic theology. His quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God.^[21]

Ali states that «God is One» means that God is away from likeness and numeration and he is not divisible even in imagination.^[22]

The first step of religion is to accept, understand and realize him as the Lord… The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person.^[23]

Vincent J. Cornell, a scholar of Islamic studies quotes the following statement from Ali:

To know God is to know his oneness. To say that God is one has four meanings: two of them are false and two are correct. As for the two meanings that are false, one is that a person should say «God is one» and be thinking of a number and counting. This is false because that which has no second cannot enter into the category of number. Do you not see that those who say that God is a third of a trinity fall into this infidelity? Another meaning is to say, «So-and-So is one of his people», namely, a species of this genus or a member of this species. This meaning is also false when applied to God, because it implies likening something to God, whereas God is above all likeness. As to the two meanings that are correct when applied to God, one is that it should be said that «God is one» in the sense that there is no likeness to him among things. Another is to say that «God is one» in the sense that there is no multiplicity or division conceivable in Him, neither outwardly, nor in the mind, nor in the imagination. God alone possesses such a unity.^[12]

Arguments for the oneness of God[edit]

Theological[edit]

Theologians usually use reason and deduction to prove the existence, unity and oneness of God. They use a teleological argument for the existence of God as a creator based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design, or direction—or some combination of these—in nature. Teleology is the supposition that there is a purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.^[24]

Another argument which is used frequently by theologians is Reductio ad absurdum. They use it instead of positive arguments as a more efficient way to reject the ideas of opponents.^[25]

God as the cause of causes[edit]

Against the polytheism of pre-Islamic Arabia, the Qur’an argues that the knowledge of God as the creator of everything rules out the possibility of lesser gods since these beings must be themselves created. For the Qur’an, God is an immanent and transcendent deity who actively creates, maintains and destroys the universe. The reality of God as the ultimate cause of things is the belief that God is veiled from human understanding because of the secondary causes and contingent realities of things in the world.^[12] Thus the belief in the oneness of God is equated in the Qur’an with the «belief in the unseen» (Sura 2:3).^[12] The Qur’an summarizes its task in making this «unseen», to a greater or lesser degree «seen» so that belief in the existence of God becomes a Master-Truth rather than an unreasonable belief. The Qur’an states that God’s signals are so near and yet so far, demanding that its students listen to what it has to say with humility (Sura 50:33, Sura 50:37). The Qur’an draws attention to certain observable facts, to present them as «reminders» of God instead of providing lengthy «theological» proofs for the existence and unity of God.^[26]

Ash’ari theologians rejected cause and effect in essence, but accepted it as something that facilitates humankind’s investigation and comprehension of natural processes. These medieval scholars argued that nature was composed of uniform atoms that were «re-created» at every instant by God. The laws of nature were only the customary sequence of apparent causes (customs of God), the ultimate cause of each accident being God himself.^[27][28] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful.

Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence.

God as the necessary existent[edit]

An ontological argument for the existence of God was first proposed by Avicenna (965-1037) in the Metaphysics section of The Book of Healing^[29][30] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful. Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.^[31]

This was the first attempt at using the method of a priori proof, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. Avicenna’s proof of God’s existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a cosmological argument and an ontological argument. «It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent». The proof is also «cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent».^[32] Another argument Avicenna presented for God’s existence was the problem of the mind-body dichotomy.^[33]

According to Avicenna, the universe consists of a chain of actual beings, each giving existence to the one below it and responsible for the existence of the rest of the chain below. Because an actual infinite is deemed impossible by Avicenna, this chain as a whole must terminate in a being that is wholly simple and one, whose essence is its very existence, and therefore is self-sufficient and not in need of something else to give it existence. Because its existence is not contingent on or necessitated by something else but is necessary and eternal in itself, it satisfies the condition of being the necessitating cause of the entire chain that constitutes the eternal world of contingent existing things.^[31] Thus his ontological system rests on the conception of God as the Wajib al-Wujud (necessary existent). There is a gradual multiplication of beings through a timeless emanation from God as a result of his self-knowledge.^[34][35]

Indivisibility of God’s sovereignty[edit]

The Qur’an argues that there can be no multiple sources of divine sovereignty since «behold, each god would have taken away what [each] had created, And some would have Lorded it over others!»^[7] The Qur’an argues that the stability and order prevailing throughout the universe shows that it was created and is being administered by only one God (Sura 28:70-72).^[6][36]

The Qur’an in verse 21:22 states: «If there were numerous gods instead of one, [the heavens and the earth] would be in a sorry state». Later Muslim theologians elaborated on this verse saying that the existence of at least two gods would inevitably arise between them, at one time or another, a conflict of wills. Since two contrary wills could not possibly be realized at the same time, one of them must admit himself powerless in that particular instance. On the other hand, a powerless being can not by definition be a god. Therefore, the possibility of having more than one god is ruled out.^[6][36] For if a God is powerful above another, then this asserts a difference in the particular attributes that are confined to the essence of Godhood, which implies the lesser God must lack in certain necessary attributes deeming this deity as anthropomorphic and snatching away the title of a god from such entity.

Other arguments[edit]

The Qur’an argues that human beings have an instinctive distaste for polytheism: At times of crisis, for example, even the idolaters forget the false deities and call upon the one true God for help. As soon as they are relieved from the danger, they however start associating other beings with God. «So when they ride in the ships they call upon Allah, being sincerely obedient to Him, but when He brings them safe to the land, lo! they associate others (with Him)» (Sura 29:65).^[36]

Next, the Qur’an argues that polytheism takes away from human dignity: God has honored human beings and given them charge of the physical world, and yet they disgrace their position in the world by worshipping what they carve out with their own hands.^[36]

Lastly, the Qur’an argues that monotheism is not a later discovery made by the human race, but rather there is the combined evidence of the prophetic call for monotheism throughout human history starting from Adam. The Qur’an suggests several causes for deviation from monotheism to polytheism: Great temporal power, regarded by the holder and his subjects as ‘absolute’ — may lead the holder to think that he is God-like; such claims were commonly forced upon, and accepted by, those who were subject to the ruler. Also, certain natural phenomena (such as the sun, the moon and the stars) inspire feelings of awe, wonder or admiration that could lead some to regard these celestial bodies as deities. Another reason for deviation from monotheism is when one becomes a slave to his or her base desires and passions. In seeking to always satisfy the desires, he or she may commit a kind of polytheism.^[36]

Interpretations[edit]

Understanding of the meaning of Tawhid is one of the most controversial issues among Muslims. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it, comprising textualistic approach, theological approach, philosophical approach and Sufism and Irfani approach. These different approaches lead to different and in some cases opposite understanding of the issue.

Theological viewpoints[edit]

Certain theologians use the term Tawhid in a much broader meaning to denote the totality of discussion of God, his existence and his various attributes. Others go yet further and use the term to ultimately represent the totality of the «principles of religion». In its current usage, the expressions «Tawhid» or «knowledge of Tawhid» are sometimes used as an equivalent for the whole Kalam, the Islamic theology.^[6]

According to Sunni Islam, the orthodox understanding of theology is taken directly from the teachings of Muhammad with the understanding and methodology of his companions, sourced directly from the revealed scripture the Qur’an; being the main information source for understanding the oneness of God in Islam. All Muslim authorities maintain that a true understanding of God is impossible unless He introduces Himself due to the fact that God is beyond the range of human vision and senses.^[37] Therefore, God tells people who He is by speaking through the prophets. According to this view, the fundamental message of all of the prophets is: «There is no god worthy of worship except Allah (avoiding the false gods as stated in Surah hud).»^[38]

Athari/Salafi approach[edit]

The approach of textual interpretation in Islam is to avoid delving into theological speculation and did not employ the use of kalam.^[39] After exposure of the early Muslim community to challenges from Hellenistic philosophy, Sunni Muslims later developed codified theological frameworks (see Ash’ari) to uphold and defend their beliefs.

Mu’tazili school[edit]

The Mu’tazilis liked to call themselves the men of the tawhid (ahl al-tawhid). In Maqalat al-Islamiyin, Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari describes the Mu’tazilite conception of the tawhid as follows:^[40]

God is unique, nothing is like him; he is neither body, nor individual, nor substance, nor accident. He is beyond time. He cannot dwell in a place or within a being; he is not the object of any creatural attribute or qualification. He is neither conditioned nor determined, neither engendered nor engendering. He is beyond the perception of the senses. The eyes cannot see him, observation cannot attain him, the imagination cannot comprehend him. He is a thing, but he is not like other things; he is omniscient, all-powerful, but his omniscience and his all-mightiness cannot be compared to anything created. He created the world without any pre-established archetype and without an auxiliary.

According to Henry Corbin, the result of this interpretation is the negation of the divine attributes, the affirmation of the created Quran, and the denial of all possibility of the vision of God in the world beyond.^[41] Mu’tazilis believed that God is deprived of all positive attributes, in the sense that all divine qualifications must be understood as being the essence itself, and declaring that God is existing ubiquitously and in everything.^[42] They resorted to metaphorical interpretations of Qur’anic verses or Prophetic reports with seemingly anthropomorphic content, e.g., the hand is the metaphorical designation of power; the face signifies the essence; the fact that God is seated on the Throne is a metaphorical image of the divine reign, and so on.^[43]

Ash’ari school[edit]

The solution proposed by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari to solve the problems of tashbih and ta’til concedes that the divine Being possesses in a real sense the Attributes and Names mentioned in the Qur’an. Insofar as these Names and Attributes have a positive reality, they are distinct from the essence, but nevertheless they do not have either existence or reality apart from it. The inspiration of al-Ash’ari in this matter was on the one hand to distinguish essence and attribute as concepts, and on the other hand to see that the duality between essence and attribute should be situated not on the quantitative but on the qualitative level—something which Mu’tazilis thinking had failed to grasp.^[44]

Ash’ari theology, which dominated Sunni Islam from the tenth to the nineteenth century, insists on ultimate divine transcendence and holds that divine unity is not accessible to human reason. Ash’arism teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, and on such questions as God’s creation of evil and the apparent anthropomorphism of God’s attributes, revelation has to accepted bila kayfa (without [asking] how).^[45]

Twelvers theology[edit]

Twelvers theology is based on the Hadith which have been narrated from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the first, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth Imams and compiled by Shia scholars such as Al-Shaykh al-Saduq in al-Tawhid.^{[46][verification needed]}
According to Shia theologians, the attributes and names of God have no independent and hypostatic existence apart from the being and essence of God. Any suggestion of these attributes and names being conceived of as separate is thought to entail polytheism. It would be even incorrect to say God knows by his knowledge which is in his essence but God knows by his knowledge which is his essence. Also, God has no physical form, and he is imperceptible.^[47]

Twelvers believe God is alone in being, along with his names, his attributes, his actions, his theophanies. The totality of being therefore is he, through him, comes from him, and returns to him. God is not a being next to or above other beings, his creatures; he is being, the absolute act of being (wujud mutlaq). For, if there were being other than he (i.e., creatural being), God would no longer be the Unique, i.e., the only one to be.^[48] As this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence, Essentially there is one Reality which is one and indivisible.^[49] The border between theoretical Tawhid and Shirk is to know that every reality and being in its essence, attributes and action are from him (from Him-ness), it is Tawhid. Every supernatural action of the prophets is by God’s permission as Quran points to it. The border between the Tawhid and Shirk in practice is to assume something as an end in itself, independent from God, not as a road to God (to Him-ness).^[50]

Philosophical viewpoints[edit]

Al-Farabi, Al-Razi and especially Avicenna put forward an interpretation of Tawhid in light of reason, with the Qur’an and Hadith serving as a basis. Before Avicenna the discussions among Muslim philosophers were about the unity of God as divine creator and his relationship with the world as creation. The earlier philosophers were profoundly affected by the emphasis of Plotinus on Divine simplicity.^[51]

َWhether this view can be reconciled with Islam, particularly given the question of what role is left for God’s will, was to become a subject of considerable controversy within intellectual Islamic discourse.

Sufi and Irfani viewpoint[edit]

In Islamic mysticism (Sufism and Irfan), Tawhid is not only the affirmation in speech of God’s unity, but also as importantly a practical and existential realization of that unity. This is done by rejecting the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity, to isolate the eternal from the temporal in a practical way. The ideal is a radical purification from all worldliness.^[52] According to Vincent J. Cornall, it is possible to draw up a monist image of God (see Sufi metaphysics) by describing the reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things: «He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent: and He has full knowledge of all things.»(Sura 57:3)»^[12] However many Muslims criticize monism for it blurs the distinction between the creator and the creature, something incompatible with the genuine and absolute monotheism of Islam.^[53]

For Muslim mystics (sufis), the affirmation in speech of God’s unity is only the first step of Tawhid. Further steps involve a spiritual experience for the existential realization of that unity. Categorizations of different steps of Tawhid could be found in the works of Muslims Sufis like Junayd Baghdadi and al-Ghazali. It involves a practical rejection of the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity.^[52] Al-Junayd for example «distinguishes four steps, starting from the simple attestation of unicity which is sufficient for ordinary believers, and culminating in the highest rank reserved for the elite, when the creature totally ceases to exist before his Lord, thus achieving al-fanā fi al-tawhīd [annihilation in unity]».^[6]

Annihilation and subsistence[edit]

According to the concept of Fana, Annihilation and Subsistence, «Man’s existence, or ego, or self-hood … must be annihilated so that he can attain to his true self which is his existence and «subsistence» with God. All of man’s character traits and habits, everything that pertains to his individual existence must become completely naughted and «obliterated» (mahw). Then God will give back to him his character traits and everything positive he ever possessed. But at this stage, he will know consciously and actually — not just theoretically — and with a through spiritual realization, that everything he is derives absolutely from God. He is nothing but a ray of God’s Attributes manifesting the Hidden Treasure.»^[54]

Unity of existence[edit]

The first detailed formulation of «Unity of Existence» (wahdat al-wujud) is closely associated to Ibn Arabi.^[55] Widely different interpretations of the meaning of the «Unity of Existence» have been proposed throughout the centuries by critics, defenders, and Western scholars. Ibn Arabi himself didn’t use the term «Unity of Existence» and similar statements had been made by those before him. For example, according to al-Ghazali «There is nothing in wujud [existence] except God…Wujud [Existence] only belongs to the Real One». Ghazali explains that the fruit of spiritual ascent of the Sufi is to «witness that there is no existence in the world save God and that ‘All things are perishing except his face’ (Qur’an 28:88)» ^[56][57]

Many authors consider being or existence to be the proper designation for the reality of God. While all Muslims believe the reality of God to be one, critics hold that the term «existence» (wujud) is also used for the existence of things in this world and that the doctrine blurs the distinction between the existence of the creator and that of the creation. Defenders argued that Ibn Arabi and his followers are offering a «subtle metaphysics following the line of the Asharite formula: «The attributes are neither God nor other than God.» God’s «signs» (ayat) and «traces» (athar)—the creatures—are neither the same as God nor different from him, because God must be understood as both absent and present, both transcendent and immanent. Understood correctly, wahdat al-wujud elucidates the delicate balance that needs to be maintained between these two perspectives.»^[57] Shah Wali Allah of Delhi argued that the Ibn Arabi’s «unity of being» was experiential and based on a subjective experience of illumination or ecstasy, rather than an ontological reality.^[58]

Influences on the Muslim culture[edit]

The Islamic doctrine of Tawhid puts forth a God whose rule, will or law are comprehensive and extend to all creatures and to all aspects of the human life. Early Muslims understood religion to thus cover the domains of state, law and society.^[59] It is believed that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9] In the following, we provide a few examples of the influences of Tawhid on the Muslim culture:

Interpersonal relationship[edit]

According to the Qur’an, one consequence of properly conceived relationship between God and man as the served and servant, is the proper relationship among humans. In order to achieve the former, the Qur’an consistently «reminds» men of two points: 1. That God is one; everything except God (including the entirety of nature) is contingent upon God. 2. With all His might and glory, God is essentially the all-merciful God.^[60]

Good and evil[edit]

According to the Qur’an, Allah is the progenitor of all things, both good and evil.^[61] As is written in the Qur’an, all of humanity is created at the will of Allah, both the good and the evil; and that their natures have been predisposed as such since the beginning of creation.^[62][63]

According to the Qur’an, Satan deviated from the oneness of Allah in the story of creation of man by permitting his own hierarchical value system to supersede Allah’s will: Allah asked the angels to bow to Adam, who he had created from clay. Satan refused, saying that «I am better than him; you created me from fire and created him from clay». The Medieval Muslim scholar, Al-Ghazali pointing out that the only legitimate «preference principle» in the sight of Allah is piety, writes: «Every time a rich man believes that he is better than a poor one, or a white man believes that he is better than a black one, then he is being arrogant. He is adopting the same hierarchical principles adopted by Iblis [Satan] in his jahl [ignorance], and thus falling into shirk [opposite of Tawhid].»^[64]

Secularism[edit]

In many jurisdictions of the world, the laws and the general attitude of the population hold that the sphere of public life should be secular,^{[citation needed]} and that belief in and practice of religion should remain in the sphere of private life.^{[citation needed]} One motive for adopting this stance has been to reduce the effects of conflict between followers of different religions or between adherents of secularism and those of a religion.^{[citation needed]} In public life, this view insists that the authority of the state prevails over any religious authorities.

For some Islamic thinkers, these propositions infringe the doctrine of Tawhid, and are therefore anathema. If the cosmos is a unified and harmonious whole, centered around the omnipotent and omnipresent God, they hold that recognising any other authority as superior is wrong. According to one writer: «Traditionally, a Muslim is not a nationalist, or citizen of a nation-state; he has no political identity, only a religious membership in the Umma. For a traditional Muslim, Islam is the sole and sufficient identification tag and nationalism and nation-states are obstacles».^[65] Hence the idea of creating a wholly Islamic state, or a revived caliphate.

In practice, nearly all Muslims^{[citation needed]} live their daily lives under some national jurisdiction and accept at least part of the constraints this involves.^{[citation needed]}

Islamic art[edit]

The desire to preserve the unity and transcendence of God led to the prohibition of Muslims from creating representation or visual depictions of God, or of any Prophet including Muhammad. Representations in art of the human form are a disputed matter in fiqh. The key concern is that the use of statues or images may lead to idolatry. The dominant forms of expression in the Islamic art, thus, became calligraphy and arabesque.^[59]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

«Tawheed» redirects here. For the Pharoah Sanders album, see Tauhid (album).

Tawhid (Arabic: توحيد‎, tawḥīd, meaning «unification of God in Islam (Allāh)»; also romanized as Tawheed, Tavhid, Tauheed or Tevhid^[2]) is the indivisible oneness concept of monotheism in Islam.^[3] Tawhid is the religion’s central and single most important concept, upon which a Muslim’s entire religious adherence rests. It unequivocally holds that God in Islam (Arabic: الله Allāh) is One (Al-ʾAḥad) and Single (Al-Wāḥid).^[4][5]

Tawhid constitutes the foremost article of the Muslim profession of submission.^[6] The first part of the shahada (the Islamic declaration of faith) is the declaration of belief in the oneness of God.^[4] To attribute divinity to anything or anyone else, is shirk – an unpardonable sin according to the Qur’an, unless repented afterwards.^[7][8] Muslims believe that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9]

From an Islamic standpoint, there is an uncompromising nondualism at the heart of the Islamic beliefs (aqidah) which is seen as distinguishing Islam from other major religions.^[10] Moreover, Tawhid requires Muslims not only to avoid worshiping multiple gods, but also to relinquish striving for money, social status or egoism.^[11]

The Qur’an asserts the existence of a single and absolute truth that transcends the world; a unique, independent and indivisible being, who is independent of the entire creation.^[12] God, according to Islam, is a universal God, rather than a local, tribal, or parochial one—God is an absolute, who integrates all affirmative values and brooks no evil.^[7]

Islamic intellectual history can be understood as a gradual unfolding of the manner in which successive generations of believers have understood the meaning and implications of professing God’s Unity. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it. Islamic theology, jurisprudence, philosophy, Sufism, even to some degree the Islamic understanding of natural sciences, all seek to explain at some level the principle of tawhid.^[13]

The classical definition of tawhid was limited to declaring or preferring belief in one God and the unity of God.^[14] Although the monotheistic definition has persisted into modern Arabic, it is now more generally used to connote «unification, union, combination, fusion; standardization, regularization; consolidation, amalgamation, merger».^[15]

Chapter 112 of the Quran, titled Al-‘Ikhlās (The Sincerity) reads:

Say: «He is Allah, [who is] One.
Allah, the Eternal Refuge.
He neither begets nor is born,
Nor is there to Him any equivalent.»^[16]

Etymology[edit]

According to Edward Lane’s Lexicon on classical Arabic, tawhid is an infinite noun that means «He asserted, or declared, God to be one; he asserted, declared, or preferred belief in the unity of God» and is derived from the Arabic verb wahhada, which means «He made it one; or called it one».^[14] In modern Arabic, the verbs wahhada or yuwahhidu mean «to unite» or «bring together» something which was not one before. This reflects the struggle of monotheism against polytheism.^[17][18]

Name of God in Islam[edit]

In order to explain the complexity of the unity of God and of the divine nature, the Qur’an uses 99 terms referred to as «Excellent Names of God» (Sura 7:180).The divine names project divine attributes, which, in turn, project all the levels of the creation down to the physical plane.^[19] Aside from the supreme name «Allah» and the neologism ar-Rahman (referring to the divine beneficence that creates and maintains the universe) and a few other specific names like al-Maalik al-Mulook («King of Kings») in an authentic narration of Muhammad, other names may be shared by both God and human beings. According to the Islamic teachings, the latter is meant to serve as a reminder of God’s immanence rather than being a sign of one’s divinity or alternatively imposing a limitation on God’s transcendent nature. Attribution of divinity to a created entity, shirk, is considered a denial of the truth of God and thus a major sin.^[12]

Shirk[edit]

Associating partners in divinity of God is known as shirk and is the antithesis of Tawhid. It is always in the form of belief in polytheism. The term shirk is used in two senses : to mean both polytheism and something that is not polytheism but a certain form of sin.^{[citation needed]}

• Greater shirk (Shirk-al-Akbar): open and apparent;
• Lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar): concealed or hidden.

Shirk. A person commits lesser shirk (Shirk-al-Asghar) when he claims to believe in God but his thoughts and actions do not reflect his belief. There are also minor forms of shirk, they must be avoided as well; these include committing a good deed to show off, making an oath in the name of anyone except God^{[citation needed]}. Within Islam, shirk (polytheism) is an unforgivable crime; God may forgive any sin if one dies in that state except for committing shirk, repentance is required for its forgiveness.^{[citation needed]}

Chapter 4, verse 48 of the Qur’an reads:

«God does not forgive the joining of partners with Him: anything less than that He forgives to whoever He will, but anyone who joins partners with God has concocted a tremendous sin.»^[20]

— Holy Qur’aan [4:48]

Chapter 4, verse 116 of the Qur’an reads:

«Indeed, Allah does not forgive association with Him, but He forgives what is less than that for whom He wills. And he who associates others with Allah has certainly gone far astray.»

— Holy Qur’aan [4:116]

Discerning the unity of God[edit]

According to Hossein Nasr, Ali, the first imam (Shia view) and fourth Rashid Caliph (Sunni view), is credited with having established Islamic theology. His quotations contain the first rational proofs among Muslims of the Unity of God.^[21]

Ali states that «God is One» means that God is away from likeness and numeration and he is not divisible even in imagination.^[22]

The first step of religion is to accept, understand and realize him as the Lord… The correct form of belief in his unity is to realize that he is so absolutely pure and above nature that nothing can be added to or subtracted from his being. That is, one should realize that there is no difference between his person and his attributes, and his attributes should not be differentiated or distinguished from his person.^[23]

Vincent J. Cornell, a scholar of Islamic studies quotes the following statement from Ali:

To know God is to know his oneness. To say that God is one has four meanings: two of them are false and two are correct. As for the two meanings that are false, one is that a person should say «God is one» and be thinking of a number and counting. This is false because that which has no second cannot enter into the category of number. Do you not see that those who say that God is a third of a trinity fall into this infidelity? Another meaning is to say, «So-and-So is one of his people», namely, a species of this genus or a member of this species. This meaning is also false when applied to God, because it implies likening something to God, whereas God is above all likeness. As to the two meanings that are correct when applied to God, one is that it should be said that «God is one» in the sense that there is no likeness to him among things. Another is to say that «God is one» in the sense that there is no multiplicity or division conceivable in Him, neither outwardly, nor in the mind, nor in the imagination. God alone possesses such a unity.^[12]

Arguments for the oneness of God[edit]

Theological[edit]

Theologians usually use reason and deduction to prove the existence, unity and oneness of God. They use a teleological argument for the existence of God as a creator based on perceived evidence of order, purpose, design, or direction—or some combination of these—in nature. Teleology is the supposition that there is a purpose or directive principle in the works and processes of nature.^[24]

Another argument which is used frequently by theologians is Reductio ad absurdum. They use it instead of positive arguments as a more efficient way to reject the ideas of opponents.^[25]

God as the cause of causes[edit]

Against the polytheism of pre-Islamic Arabia, the Qur’an argues that the knowledge of God as the creator of everything rules out the possibility of lesser gods since these beings must be themselves created. For the Qur’an, God is an immanent and transcendent deity who actively creates, maintains and destroys the universe. The reality of God as the ultimate cause of things is the belief that God is veiled from human understanding because of the secondary causes and contingent realities of things in the world.^[12] Thus the belief in the oneness of God is equated in the Qur’an with the «belief in the unseen» (Sura 2:3).^[12] The Qur’an summarizes its task in making this «unseen», to a greater or lesser degree «seen» so that belief in the existence of God becomes a Master-Truth rather than an unreasonable belief. The Qur’an states that God’s signals are so near and yet so far, demanding that its students listen to what it has to say with humility (Sura 50:33, Sura 50:37). The Qur’an draws attention to certain observable facts, to present them as «reminders» of God instead of providing lengthy «theological» proofs for the existence and unity of God.^[26]

Ash’ari theologians rejected cause and effect in essence, but accepted it as something that facilitates humankind’s investigation and comprehension of natural processes. These medieval scholars argued that nature was composed of uniform atoms that were «re-created» at every instant by God. The laws of nature were only the customary sequence of apparent causes (customs of God), the ultimate cause of each accident being God himself.^[27][28] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful.

Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence.

God as the necessary existent[edit]

An ontological argument for the existence of God was first proposed by Avicenna (965-1037) in the Metaphysics section of The Book of Healing^[29][30] Other forms of the argument also appear in Avicenna’s other works, and this argument became known as the Proof of the Truthful. Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence (Mahiat) and existence (Wujud). He argued that the fact of existence can not be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.^[31]

This was the first attempt at using the method of a priori proof, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. Avicenna’s proof of God’s existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a cosmological argument and an ontological argument. «It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent». The proof is also «cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent».^[32] Another argument Avicenna presented for God’s existence was the problem of the mind-body dichotomy.^[33]

According to Avicenna, the universe consists of a chain of actual beings, each giving existence to the one below it and responsible for the existence of the rest of the chain below. Because an actual infinite is deemed impossible by Avicenna, this chain as a whole must terminate in a being that is wholly simple and one, whose essence is its very existence, and therefore is self-sufficient and not in need of something else to give it existence. Because its existence is not contingent on or necessitated by something else but is necessary and eternal in itself, it satisfies the condition of being the necessitating cause of the entire chain that constitutes the eternal world of contingent existing things.^[31] Thus his ontological system rests on the conception of God as the Wajib al-Wujud (necessary existent). There is a gradual multiplication of beings through a timeless emanation from God as a result of his self-knowledge.^[34][35]

Indivisibility of God’s sovereignty[edit]

The Qur’an argues that there can be no multiple sources of divine sovereignty since «behold, each god would have taken away what [each] had created, And some would have Lorded it over others!»^[7] The Qur’an argues that the stability and order prevailing throughout the universe shows that it was created and is being administered by only one God (Sura 28:70-72).^[6][36]

The Qur’an in verse 21:22 states: «If there were numerous gods instead of one, [the heavens and the earth] would be in a sorry state». Later Muslim theologians elaborated on this verse saying that the existence of at least two gods would inevitably arise between them, at one time or another, a conflict of wills. Since two contrary wills could not possibly be realized at the same time, one of them must admit himself powerless in that particular instance. On the other hand, a powerless being can not by definition be a god. Therefore, the possibility of having more than one god is ruled out.^[6][36] For if a God is powerful above another, then this asserts a difference in the particular attributes that are confined to the essence of Godhood, which implies the lesser God must lack in certain necessary attributes deeming this deity as anthropomorphic and snatching away the title of a god from such entity.

Other arguments[edit]

The Qur’an argues that human beings have an instinctive distaste for polytheism: At times of crisis, for example, even the idolaters forget the false deities and call upon the one true God for help. As soon as they are relieved from the danger, they however start associating other beings with God. «So when they ride in the ships they call upon Allah, being sincerely obedient to Him, but when He brings them safe to the land, lo! they associate others (with Him)» (Sura 29:65).^[36]

Next, the Qur’an argues that polytheism takes away from human dignity: God has honored human beings and given them charge of the physical world, and yet they disgrace their position in the world by worshipping what they carve out with their own hands.^[36]

Lastly, the Qur’an argues that monotheism is not a later discovery made by the human race, but rather there is the combined evidence of the prophetic call for monotheism throughout human history starting from Adam. The Qur’an suggests several causes for deviation from monotheism to polytheism: Great temporal power, regarded by the holder and his subjects as ‘absolute’ — may lead the holder to think that he is God-like; such claims were commonly forced upon, and accepted by, those who were subject to the ruler. Also, certain natural phenomena (such as the sun, the moon and the stars) inspire feelings of awe, wonder or admiration that could lead some to regard these celestial bodies as deities. Another reason for deviation from monotheism is when one becomes a slave to his or her base desires and passions. In seeking to always satisfy the desires, he or she may commit a kind of polytheism.^[36]

Interpretations[edit]

Understanding of the meaning of Tawhid is one of the most controversial issues among Muslims. Islamic scholars have different approaches toward understanding it, comprising textualistic approach, theological approach, philosophical approach and Sufism and Irfani approach. These different approaches lead to different and in some cases opposite understanding of the issue.

Theological viewpoints[edit]

Certain theologians use the term Tawhid in a much broader meaning to denote the totality of discussion of God, his existence and his various attributes. Others go yet further and use the term to ultimately represent the totality of the «principles of religion». In its current usage, the expressions «Tawhid» or «knowledge of Tawhid» are sometimes used as an equivalent for the whole Kalam, the Islamic theology.^[6]

According to Sunni Islam, the orthodox understanding of theology is taken directly from the teachings of Muhammad with the understanding and methodology of his companions, sourced directly from the revealed scripture the Qur’an; being the main information source for understanding the oneness of God in Islam. All Muslim authorities maintain that a true understanding of God is impossible unless He introduces Himself due to the fact that God is beyond the range of human vision and senses.^[37] Therefore, God tells people who He is by speaking through the prophets. According to this view, the fundamental message of all of the prophets is: «There is no god worthy of worship except Allah (avoiding the false gods as stated in Surah hud).»^[38]

Athari/Salafi approach[edit]

The approach of textual interpretation in Islam is to avoid delving into theological speculation and did not employ the use of kalam.^[39] After exposure of the early Muslim community to challenges from Hellenistic philosophy, Sunni Muslims later developed codified theological frameworks (see Ash’ari) to uphold and defend their beliefs.

Mu’tazili school[edit]

The Mu’tazilis liked to call themselves the men of the tawhid (ahl al-tawhid). In Maqalat al-Islamiyin, Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari describes the Mu’tazilite conception of the tawhid as follows:^[40]

God is unique, nothing is like him; he is neither body, nor individual, nor substance, nor accident. He is beyond time. He cannot dwell in a place or within a being; he is not the object of any creatural attribute or qualification. He is neither conditioned nor determined, neither engendered nor engendering. He is beyond the perception of the senses. The eyes cannot see him, observation cannot attain him, the imagination cannot comprehend him. He is a thing, but he is not like other things; he is omniscient, all-powerful, but his omniscience and his all-mightiness cannot be compared to anything created. He created the world without any pre-established archetype and without an auxiliary.

According to Henry Corbin, the result of this interpretation is the negation of the divine attributes, the affirmation of the created Quran, and the denial of all possibility of the vision of God in the world beyond.^[41] Mu’tazilis believed that God is deprived of all positive attributes, in the sense that all divine qualifications must be understood as being the essence itself, and declaring that God is existing ubiquitously and in everything.^[42] They resorted to metaphorical interpretations of Qur’anic verses or Prophetic reports with seemingly anthropomorphic content, e.g., the hand is the metaphorical designation of power; the face signifies the essence; the fact that God is seated on the Throne is a metaphorical image of the divine reign, and so on.^[43]

Ash’ari school[edit]

The solution proposed by Abu al-Hasan al-Ash’ari to solve the problems of tashbih and ta’til concedes that the divine Being possesses in a real sense the Attributes and Names mentioned in the Qur’an. Insofar as these Names and Attributes have a positive reality, they are distinct from the essence, but nevertheless they do not have either existence or reality apart from it. The inspiration of al-Ash’ari in this matter was on the one hand to distinguish essence and attribute as concepts, and on the other hand to see that the duality between essence and attribute should be situated not on the quantitative but on the qualitative level—something which Mu’tazilis thinking had failed to grasp.^[44]

Ash’ari theology, which dominated Sunni Islam from the tenth to the nineteenth century, insists on ultimate divine transcendence and holds that divine unity is not accessible to human reason. Ash’arism teaches that human knowledge regarding it is limited to what has been revealed through the prophets, and on such questions as God’s creation of evil and the apparent anthropomorphism of God’s attributes, revelation has to accepted bila kayfa (without [asking] how).^[45]

Twelvers theology[edit]

Twelvers theology is based on the Hadith which have been narrated from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, the first, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth Imams and compiled by Shia scholars such as Al-Shaykh al-Saduq in al-Tawhid.^{[46][verification needed]}
According to Shia theologians, the attributes and names of God have no independent and hypostatic existence apart from the being and essence of God. Any suggestion of these attributes and names being conceived of as separate is thought to entail polytheism. It would be even incorrect to say God knows by his knowledge which is in his essence but God knows by his knowledge which is his essence. Also, God has no physical form, and he is imperceptible.^[47]

Twelvers believe God is alone in being, along with his names, his attributes, his actions, his theophanies. The totality of being therefore is he, through him, comes from him, and returns to him. God is not a being next to or above other beings, his creatures; he is being, the absolute act of being (wujud mutlaq). For, if there were being other than he (i.e., creatural being), God would no longer be the Unique, i.e., the only one to be.^[48] As this Divine Essence is infinite, his qualities are the same as his essence, Essentially there is one Reality which is one and indivisible.^[49] The border between theoretical Tawhid and Shirk is to know that every reality and being in its essence, attributes and action are from him (from Him-ness), it is Tawhid. Every supernatural action of the prophets is by God’s permission as Quran points to it. The border between the Tawhid and Shirk in practice is to assume something as an end in itself, independent from God, not as a road to God (to Him-ness).^[50]

Philosophical viewpoints[edit]

Al-Farabi, Al-Razi and especially Avicenna put forward an interpretation of Tawhid in light of reason, with the Qur’an and Hadith serving as a basis. Before Avicenna the discussions among Muslim philosophers were about the unity of God as divine creator and his relationship with the world as creation. The earlier philosophers were profoundly affected by the emphasis of Plotinus on Divine simplicity.^[51]

َWhether this view can be reconciled with Islam, particularly given the question of what role is left for God’s will, was to become a subject of considerable controversy within intellectual Islamic discourse.

Sufi and Irfani viewpoint[edit]

In Islamic mysticism (Sufism and Irfan), Tawhid is not only the affirmation in speech of God’s unity, but also as importantly a practical and existential realization of that unity. This is done by rejecting the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity, to isolate the eternal from the temporal in a practical way. The ideal is a radical purification from all worldliness.^[52] According to Vincent J. Cornall, it is possible to draw up a monist image of God (see Sufi metaphysics) by describing the reality as a unified whole, with God being a single concept that would describe or ascribe all existing things: «He is the First and the Last, the Evident and the Immanent: and He has full knowledge of all things.»(Sura 57:3)»^[12] However many Muslims criticize monism for it blurs the distinction between the creator and the creature, something incompatible with the genuine and absolute monotheism of Islam.^[53]

For Muslim mystics (sufis), the affirmation in speech of God’s unity is only the first step of Tawhid. Further steps involve a spiritual experience for the existential realization of that unity. Categorizations of different steps of Tawhid could be found in the works of Muslims Sufis like Junayd Baghdadi and al-Ghazali. It involves a practical rejection of the concepts tied to the world of multiplicity.^[52] Al-Junayd for example «distinguishes four steps, starting from the simple attestation of unicity which is sufficient for ordinary believers, and culminating in the highest rank reserved for the elite, when the creature totally ceases to exist before his Lord, thus achieving al-fanā fi al-tawhīd [annihilation in unity]».^[6]

Annihilation and subsistence[edit]

According to the concept of Fana, Annihilation and Subsistence, «Man’s existence, or ego, or self-hood … must be annihilated so that he can attain to his true self which is his existence and «subsistence» with God. All of man’s character traits and habits, everything that pertains to his individual existence must become completely naughted and «obliterated» (mahw). Then God will give back to him his character traits and everything positive he ever possessed. But at this stage, he will know consciously and actually — not just theoretically — and with a through spiritual realization, that everything he is derives absolutely from God. He is nothing but a ray of God’s Attributes manifesting the Hidden Treasure.»^[54]

Unity of existence[edit]

The first detailed formulation of «Unity of Existence» (wahdat al-wujud) is closely associated to Ibn Arabi.^[55] Widely different interpretations of the meaning of the «Unity of Existence» have been proposed throughout the centuries by critics, defenders, and Western scholars. Ibn Arabi himself didn’t use the term «Unity of Existence» and similar statements had been made by those before him. For example, according to al-Ghazali «There is nothing in wujud [existence] except God…Wujud [Existence] only belongs to the Real One». Ghazali explains that the fruit of spiritual ascent of the Sufi is to «witness that there is no existence in the world save God and that ‘All things are perishing except his face’ (Qur’an 28:88)» ^[56][57]

Many authors consider being or existence to be the proper designation for the reality of God. While all Muslims believe the reality of God to be one, critics hold that the term «existence» (wujud) is also used for the existence of things in this world and that the doctrine blurs the distinction between the existence of the creator and that of the creation. Defenders argued that Ibn Arabi and his followers are offering a «subtle metaphysics following the line of the Asharite formula: «The attributes are neither God nor other than God.» God’s «signs» (ayat) and «traces» (athar)—the creatures—are neither the same as God nor different from him, because God must be understood as both absent and present, both transcendent and immanent. Understood correctly, wahdat al-wujud elucidates the delicate balance that needs to be maintained between these two perspectives.»^[57] Shah Wali Allah of Delhi argued that the Ibn Arabi’s «unity of being» was experiential and based on a subjective experience of illumination or ecstasy, rather than an ontological reality.^[58]

Influences on the Muslim culture[edit]

The Islamic doctrine of Tawhid puts forth a God whose rule, will or law are comprehensive and extend to all creatures and to all aspects of the human life. Early Muslims understood religion to thus cover the domains of state, law and society.^[59] It is believed that the entirety of the Islamic teaching rests on the principle of Tawhid.^[9] In the following, we provide a few examples of the influences of Tawhid on the Muslim culture:

Interpersonal relationship[edit]

According to the Qur’an, one consequence of properly conceived relationship between God and man as the served and servant, is the proper relationship among humans. In order to achieve the former, the Qur’an consistently «reminds» men of two points: 1. That God is one; everything except God (including the entirety of nature) is contingent upon God. 2. With all His might and glory, God is essentially the all-merciful God.^[60]

Good and evil[edit]

According to the Qur’an, Allah is the progenitor of all things, both good and evil.^[61] As is written in the Qur’an, all of humanity is created at the will of Allah, both the good and the evil; and that their natures have been predisposed as such since the beginning of creation.^[62][63]

According to the Qur’an, Satan deviated from the oneness of Allah in the story of creation of man by permitting his own hierarchical value system to supersede Allah’s will: Allah asked the angels to bow to Adam, who he had created from clay. Satan refused, saying that «I am better than him; you created me from fire and created him from clay». The Medieval Muslim scholar, Al-Ghazali pointing out that the only legitimate «preference principle» in the sight of Allah is piety, writes: «Every time a rich man believes that he is better than a poor one, or a white man believes that he is better than a black one, then he is being arrogant. He is adopting the same hierarchical principles adopted by Iblis [Satan] in his jahl [ignorance], and thus falling into shirk [opposite of Tawhid].»^[64]

Secularism[edit]

In many jurisdictions of the world, the laws and the general attitude of the population hold that the sphere of public life should be secular,^{[citation needed]} and that belief in and practice of religion should remain in the sphere of private life.^{[citation needed]} One motive for adopting this stance has been to reduce the effects of conflict between followers of different religions or between adherents of secularism and those of a religion.^{[citation needed]} In public life, this view insists that the authority of the state prevails over any religious authorities.

For some Islamic thinkers, these propositions infringe the doctrine of Tawhid, and are therefore anathema. If the cosmos is a unified and harmonious whole, centered around the omnipotent and omnipresent God, they hold that recognising any other authority as superior is wrong. According to one writer: «Traditionally, a Muslim is not a nationalist, or citizen of a nation-state; he has no political identity, only a religious membership in the Umma. For a traditional Muslim, Islam is the sole and sufficient identification tag and nationalism and nation-states are obstacles».^[65] Hence the idea of creating a wholly Islamic state, or a revived caliphate.

In practice, nearly all Muslims^{[citation needed]} live their daily lives under some national jurisdiction and accept at least part of the constraints this involves.^{[citation needed]}

Islamic art[edit]

The desire to preserve the unity and transcendence of God led to the prohibition of Muslims from creating representation or visual depictions of God, or of any Prophet including Muhammad. Representations in art of the human form are a disputed matter in fiqh. The key concern is that the use of statues or images may lead to idolatry. The dominant forms of expression in the Islamic art, thus, became calligraphy and arabesque.^[59]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

Further reading[edit]

Один поднятый указательный палец имеет несколько значений. Многие мусульмане считают его символом Таухида.

Таухид (Арабский : تَوْحِيد, tawḥīd, что означает «объединение или единство Бога »; также романизированный как Таухид, Тухид, Таухид или Тевхид) является неделимой концепцией единства монотеизма в исламе. Таухид — центральная и самая важная концепция религии, на которой зиждется вся религиозная приверженность мусульманина. Он недвусмысленно утверждает, что Бог Един (Аль-Хадад ) и Единственный (Аль-Вахид ).

Таухид составляет важнейший предмет мусульманской профессии покорности. Часть шахада (исламского декларация веры ) — это декларация веры в единство Бога. Приписывать божественность кому-либо или чему-либо — это ширк — непростительный грех согласно Корану Мусульмане верят, что все исламское учение зиждется на принципе Таухид.

Из ислама В основе исламских верований (акида ) лежит бескомпромиссный монотеизм, который отличает ислам от других основных религий. Более того, Таухид требует Мусульмане не только исключить поклонения богов, но отказаться от стремления к деньгам, социальному статусу или эгоизму.

Коран утверждает существование то, что превосходит мир; уникальное, независимое и неделимое существо, не зависимое от всего творения. Бог, согласно исламу, является универсальным Богом, а не местным, племенным или узким. Бог является абсолютом, который объединяет все утвердительные ценности и не терпит зла.

Исламский интеллектуальную историю можно понимать как новое развитие того, как сменяющие друг друга поколения, понимающие значение и значение исповедания Единства Бога. У исламских ученых разные подходы к его пониманию. исламское богословие, юриспруденция, философия, суфизм, даже до некоторой степени исламское понимание естественных наук, все стремятся объяснить на каком-то уровне принципа таухида.

Классическое определение таухида ограничивалось провозглашением или предпочтением веры в единого Бога и единство Бога. Хотя монотеистическое определение сохранилось в современном арабском языке, в настоящее время оно широко используется для обозначения «объединение, объединение, слияния; стандартизации, регуляризации; консолидации, слияния, слияния ».

Глава 112 Корана, озаглавленный Аль-Ихлас (Искренность) гласит:

Скажи: «Он — Аллах, [который] Единый.. Аллах, Вечное Прибежище.. Он не порождает и не является рожденным,. Он нет равного. «

Содержание

• 1 Этимология
• 2 Имя Бога в исламе
• 3 Ширк
• 4 Различение единства Бога
• 5 Аргументы в пользу единства Бога
  • 5.1 Богословские
  • 5.2 Бог как Причины причин
  • 5.3 Бог как существующее существующее
  • 5.4 Неделимость суверенитета Бога
  • 5.5 Другие аргументы
• 6 Толкования
  • 6.1 Теологические точки зрения
    • 6.1.1 Подход атари / салафит
    • 6.1. 2 Школа мутазилитов
    • 6.1.3 Школа ашари
    • 6.1.4 Теология двунадесятников
  • 6.2 Философские точки зрения
  • 6.3 Точка зрения суфиев и Ирфани
    • 6.3.1 Анн ихилирование и существование
    • 6.3. 2 Единство существования
• 7 Влияние на мусульманскую культуру
  • 7.1 Межличностные отношения
  • 7.2 Добро и зло
  • 7.3 Секуляризм
  • 7.4 Исламское искусство
• 8 См. Также
• 9 Ссылки
• 10 Дополнительная литература
• 11 Внешние ссылки

Этимология

Согласно лексикону Эдварда Лейна на классическом арабском языке, таухид — бесконечное существительное, которое означает «Он утверждал или заявлял, Бог быть одним; он утверждал, заявлял или предпочитает веру в единство Бога и происходит от арабского глагола ваххада, что означает «Он сделал это единым; или назвал это одним ». В современном арабском языке глаголы wahhada или yuwahhidu означают «объединять» или «объединять» то, что не было единым целым, что отражает борьбу монотеизма против политеизма.

Имя Бог в исламе

Чтобы объяснить сложность единства Бога и божественной природы, Коран использует 99 терминов, называемых «Превосходные имена Бога» (сура 7: 180). Божественные имена проецируют божественные атрибуты, которые в свою очередь проецируют все творения вниз на физический план. Помимо конкретных имен, таких как Аль-Малик аль-Мулук («Царь царей») в истинном повествовании Мухаммада <, помимо определенных имен, таких как «Аллах» и неологизма ар-Рахман. 221>, другие имена могут быть общими как для Бога, так и для человека. существа. Согласно исламскому учению, последнее должно служить напоминанием об имманентности Бога, а не быть знакомой-либо божественности или изначально наложение ограничений на трансцендентную природу Бога. Приписывание божественной сущности, ширк, считается истиной Бога и, следовательно, большим грехом.

Ширк

Известно, что другие люди связаны с Богом как ширк и полной противоположностью Таухида. Обычно, но не всегда, это проявляется в форме идолопоклонства и мольбы к другим, кроме Аллаха, или веры в то, что они обладают теми же качествами, что и он, в равной или меньшей степени. Ваххабизм разделил ширк на две категории.

• Большой ширк (Ширк-ал-Акбар): открытый и очевидный;
• Малый ширк (Ширк-аль-Асгар): скрытый или скрытый.

Большой ширк состоит из вышеупомянутых деяний. Человек совершает малый ширк (ширк-аль-Асгар) или скрытый политеизм, когда он утверждает, что верит в Бога, но его мысли и действия не отражают его веру. Есть также второстепенные формы ширка, их тоже исключено; к ним совершение доброго дела, чтобы похвастаться, принесение клятвы от имени кого-либо, кроме Бога. В исламе ширк — непростительное преступление; Бог может простить любой грех, если кто-то умрет в этом состоянии, кроме совершения ширка, покаяние требуется для его прощения.

Глава 4, стих 48 Корана гласит:

Бог делает не прощайте объединение с Ним: все меньшее, чем это, Он прощает, кому пожелает, но всякий, кто объединяет партнеров с Богом, сотворил ужасный грех.

Различение единства Бога

Согласно Хоссейн Наср, Али, первый имам (шиитская точка зрения) и четвертый Рашид Халиф (суннитская точка зрения), считается установившим Исламское богословие. Его цитаты использовать первые рациональные доказательства Единства Бога среди мусульман.

Али утверждает, что «Бог един» означает, что Бог далек от подобия и исчисления, и он не делится даже в воображении.

Первый шаг религии — это принять, понять и осознать его как Господа… Правильная форма веры в его единство — это осознать, что он настолько чист и выше природы, что нельзя добавить или вычесть из него. его существо. То есть, человек должен понимать, что нет никакой разницы между его личностью и его атрибутами, и его атрибуты не следует дифференцировать или отличать от его личности.

Винсент Дж. Корнелл, исследователь исламоведения цитирует следующее высказывание из Али :

Познать Бога — значит познать его единство. Сказать, что Бог един, есть четыре значения: два из них ложны и два правильны. Что касается двух значений, ложны, первое состоит в том, что человек должен сказать «Бог един» и которые включают в себя и считать. Это неверно, потому что то, что не имеет значения, не может входить в категорию числа. Разве вы не видите, что те, кто говорит, что Бог есть третьи троицы, впадают в эту неверность? Другое значение — сказать: «Такой-то и есть один из его людей», а именно вид этого или члена этого вида. Это также неверно, когда применяется к Богу, потому что оно подразумевает уподобление чего-либо Богу, тогда как Бог выше всякого подобия. Что касается двух значений, которые верны в применении к Богу, первое в том, что следует сказать, что «Бог един» в том смысле, что нет никакого подобия Ему среди вещей. Другой вариант — сказать, что «Бог единство» в том смысле, что в Нем не может быть постижимо множественность или разделение ни внешне, ни в уме, ни в воображении. Только Бог обладает таким единством.

Аргументы в пользу единства Бога

Богословские

Богословы обычно используют разум и дедукцию, чтобы доказать существование, единство и единство Бога. Они используют телеологический аргумент в использовании существ Бога как творца, основанный на очевидных явлениях порядка, цели, замысла или направления — или некоторой их комбинации — в природе. Телеология — это принцип предположения о наличии цели или руководящего в делах и процессах природы.

Другой аргумент, который часто используется теологами, — это Reductio ad absurdum. Они используют его вместо положительных аргументов как более эффективный способ отвергнуть идеи оппонентов.

Бог как причина причин

Против политеизма из доисламская Аравия, Коран утверждает, что познание Бога как создателя исключает возможность существования меньших богов, поскольку эти существа должны быть созданы сами. Для Корана Бог — это имманентное и трансцендентное божество, которое активно, поддерживает и разрушает вселенную. Реальность Бога как первопричины вещей — это вера в то, что Бог скрыт от человеческого понимания из-за вторичных причин и случайных реальностей вещей в мире. Таким образом, вера в единство Бога приравнивается в Коране к «вере в невидимое» (сура 2: 3 ). Коран резюмирует свою задачу в том, чтобы сделать это «невидимым», в большей или меньшей степени «видимым», чтобы вера в существовании Бога стала Главной Истиной, а не необоснованной верой. Коран заявляет, что сигналы Бога так близки и в то же время так далеко, и требует, чтобы его ученики со смирением слушали то, что он говорит (сура 50:33, сура 50:37 ). Коран привлекает к представлению как «напоминания» о Боге вместо того, чтобы представить «теологические» доказательства существования и единства Бога.

Аш’ари теологи отвергали причина и следствие по сути, но приняли это как нечто, что облегчает человечество исследование и понимание природных процессов. Эти средневековые утверждают, что природа состоит из однородных элементов, которые в каждое мгновение «воссоздаются» Богом. Законы природы представляли собой лишь случайную последовательность явных причин (обычаев Бога), причем причиной каждой случайности был сам Бог. Другие формы аргумента также появились в других работах Авиценны, и этот аргумент стал известен как Доказательство правды.

Ибн Сина инициировал полноценное расследование вопроса о существовании, в котором он различал сущность (Махиат) и существование (Вуджуд). Он утверждал, что факт существования не может быть выведен из или объясненностью сущности вещей, и что форма и материя сами по себе могут вызывать и вызывать движение вселенной или вызывать актуализацию текущих вещей. Следовательно, существование должно быть вызвано причиной-агентом, которое делает, придает, создает или выполняет существование сущности.

Бог как существующее

онтологический аргумент в пользу был предложен Бога впервые Авиценной (965-1037) в раздел «Метафизика» Книги исцеления

Это была первая попытка использовать метод априорного доказательства, который использует интуицию и причина одна. Доказательство Авиценны существования Бога уникально тем, что его можно классифицировать как космологический аргумент, так и онтологический аргумент. «Это онтологический постольку, поскольку« необходимое существование »в интеллекте является первым основанием для аргументации в пользу необходимого существования ». Доказательство также является «космологическим, поскольку большая его часть занята аргументацией», что не может стоять отдельно. Еще один аргумент, представленный Авиценной в использовании существования Бога — проблема дихотомии тела и разума.

. Согласно Авиценне, несет ответственность за существование остальная часть цепочки ниже. Эта цепочка в целом должна заканчиваться полностью и единым существом, поэтому оно самодостаточно и не нуждается в чем-то еще, чтобы дать это. существование. Оно не обусловлено чем-то другим, но оно удовлетворяет само по себе, оно удовлетворяет условию того. Таким образом, его онтологическая система основывает концепции на Бога как Ваджиб аль-Вуджуд (обязательно существующий). В результате его самопознания происходит это умножение через вечное излучение Бога.

Неделимость владычества Бога

Коран утверждает, что не может быть множественных источников божественного суверенитета, так как «вот, каждый бог забрал бы то, что [каждый] создал, и некоторые господствовали бы над другими ! » Коран утверждает, что стабильность и порядок, царящие во вселенной, показывают, что она создана и управляется только одним Богом (Сура 28: 70-72 ).

Коран в стихе 21:22 утверждает: «Если бы было много Позже мусульманские богословы развили этот стих, говоря между ними неизбежно возникнет существование по крайней мере двух богов, одновременно время или другое, конфликт воли. Другая сторона, одна из которых может быть реализована одновременно, одна из них должна признать себя бессильной в этом конкретном случае. в атрибутах, указывающие на атрибуты, указывающие на атрибуты, указывающие на атрибуты, указывающие на атрибуты, указывающие на определенные атрибуты, не указываются. отнимает у такого существа титул бога.

Другие аргументы

Коран утверждает, что у людей есть инстинктивное отвращение к политеизму : во время кризиса, например, даже идолопоклонники забывают ложных божеств и взывают к единому истинному Богу за помощью. Однако как только они избавляются от опасности, они начинают ассоциировать другие существ с Богом. «Итак, когда они взывают к Аллаху, они были искренне послушными Его, но когда он приводит их в целости и сохранности на землю, вот! Они связывают (с Ним) »(сура 29:65 ).

Далее, Коран утверждает, что многобожие лишает человека достоинства: Бог почтил людей и поручил им управлять другим физическим миром, и все же они унижают свое положение в мире, 200>

Наконец, Коран утверждает, что монотеизм — это не более позднее открытие, сделанное человечеством, а, скорее, совокупное свидетельство пророческого послания к монотеизму на всей истории человечества, начиная с Адама Предлагает несколько причин отклонения от монотеизма к политеизму: Великая светская власть, рассматриваемая держателем и его подданными как «абсолютная», может заставить держателя думать, что он богоподобен; такие утверждения обычно навязывались и принимались теми, кто подчинялся правителю эти явления (такие как солнце, луна и звезды) вызывают чувства трепета, удивления или восхищения, рассматривают эти небесные тела как божества 221>. Другая причина отклонения от монотеизма — это когда человек становится рабом своих низменных желаний и страстей. Стремясь всегда удовлетворять желания, он или она может совершить своего рода политеизм.

Интерпретации

Понимание значения Таухид — одна из самых спорных проблем среди мусульман. Исламские ученые имеют разные подходы к его пониманию, включая текстуалистический подход, теологический подход, философский подход и суфизм и ирфани подход. Эти разные подходы приводят к разному, а в некоторых случаях и противоположному пониманию проблемы.

Теологические точки зрения

Некоторые теологи используют термин Таухид в более широком смысле, чтобы обозначить совокупность обсуждения Бога, его существования и его различных атрибутов. Другие идут еще дальше и используют этот термин для обозначения совокупности «принципов религии». В его нынешнем употреблении выражения «Таухид» или «знание Таухида» иногда используются как эквивалент всего Калама, исламского богословия.

Согласно суннитскому исламу, ортодоксальному пониманию богословие взято непосредственно из учения Мухаммеда с пониманием и методологией его сподвижников, взятых непосредственно из богооткровенного писания Коран ; являясь основным источником информации для понимания единства Бога в исламе. Все мусульманские авторитеты утверждают, что истинное понимание Бога невозможно, если Он не представит Себя, потому что Бог находится за пределами досягаемости человеческого зрения и чувств. Следовательно, Бог говорит людям, кто Он такой, говоря через пророков. Согласно этой точке зрения, основное послание всех пророков таково: «Нет бога, достойного поклонения, кроме Аллаха (избегающего ложных богов, как сказано в суре худ)».

Подход атари / салафитов

Подход к интерпретации текстов в исламе заключается в том, чтобы не углубляться в богословские спекуляции и не использовать использование калам. После того, как раннее мусульманское сообщество столкнулось с вызовами со стороны эллинистической философии, суннитов мусульмане позже разработали кодифицированные теологические основы (см. Аш’ари ) для отстаивания и защиты своих убеждений..

Школа мутазилитов

Мутазилиты любили называть себя людьми таухида (ахл ат-таухид). В «Макалат аль-Исламийин» Абу аль-Хасан аль-Аш’ари описывает мутазилитскую концепцию таухида следующим образом:

Бог уникален, ничто не похоже на него; он ни тело, ни индивидуум, ни субстанция, ни случайность. Он вне времени. Он не может жить в каком-то месте или внутри существа; он не является объектом каких-либо тварных атрибутов или квалификаций. Он не обусловлен и не определен, не порожден и не порожден. Он находится за пределами восприятия чувств. Глаза не могут его видеть, наблюдение не может его достичь, воображение не может понять его. Он вещь, но он не похож на другие вещи; он всеведущ, всемогущ, но его всеведение и всемогущество нельзя сравнить ни с чем созданным. Он создал мир без какого-либо заранее установленного архетипа и без вспомогательного.

Согласно Генри Корбину, результатом этой интерпретации является отрицание божественных атрибутов, утверждение созданного Корана и отрицание всякой возможности видения Бога в потустороннем мире. Мутазилиты считали, что Бог лишен всех положительных атрибутов в том смысле, что все божественные качества должны пониматься как суть и заявлять, что Бог существует повсеместно и во всем. Они прибегли к метафорическим толкованиям аятов Корана или пророческим сообщениям с кажущимся антропоморфным содержанием, например, рука — метафорическое обозначение силы; лицо означает сущность; тот факт, что Бог восседает на Троне, является метафорическим образом божественного правления и т. д.

Школа Ашари

Решение, предложенное Абу аль-Хасаном алом -Аш’ари для решения проблем ташбиха и та’тил признает, что божественное Существо в реальном смысле обладает Атрибутами и Именами, упомянутыми в Коране. Поскольку эти Имена и Атрибуты имеют позитивную реальность, они отличны от сущности, но, тем не менее, они не имеют ни существования, ни реальности отдельно от нее. Вдохновением аль-Ашари в этом вопросе было, с одной стороны, различать сущность и атрибут как концепции, а с другой стороны, видеть, что двойственность между сущностью и атрибутом должна располагаться не на количественном, а на качественном уровне. — то, что мысли мутазилитов не смогли уловить.

Аш’ари богословие, которое доминировало в суннитском исламе с десятого по девятнадцатый век, настаивает на высшей божественной трансцендентности и утверждает, что божественное единство недоступно для человека. причина. Ашаризм учит, что человеческоезнание о нем ограничено тем, что было открыто через пророков и по таким вопросам, как сотворение зла Богом и очевидный антропоморфизм принимать атрибутов Бога, откровение должно била кайфа (не [спрашивая], как

Богословие двунадесятников

Богословие двунадесятников основано на хадисах, которые были переданы от исламского пророка Мухаммеда, первого, пятый, шестой, седьмой и восьмой Имамы и составлены шиитскими учеными, такими как Аль-Шейх ас-Садук в ат-Таухид. Считается, что любое предложение рассматривать эти атрибуты и имена как отдельные, влечет эти атрибуты и имена как отдельные, влечет за собой политеизм, шиитским теологам, атрибутам и именам Бога, не имеющим независимого ипостатического существования, кроме бытия и сущности Бога. Было бы даже неправильно сказать, что Бог знает своим знанием, что является его сущностью, но Бог знает своим знанием, что являет ся его сущностью. у Бога нет формы, и он незаметен.

Двенадцать сторонников верят, что только Бог существует, наряду с его именами, его атрибутами, его действиями, его теофанией. Таким образом, целостность бытия состоит в том, что через него он исходит от него и возвращается к нему. Бог не является существом рядом или выше других существ, своих созданий; он есть, абсолютный акт бытия (вуджуд мутлак). Ибо, если существовали другие существа, кроме него (т. Е. Тварное существо), Бог больше не был бы уникальным, то есть существующим. Эта Божественная Сущность бесконечна, его качества такие же, как и его сущность. По сути, существует одна Реальность, которая является единой и неделимой. Граница между теоретическим Таухидом и Ширком заключается в том, чтобы знать, что каждая реальность и существо по своей сути, атрибутам и действию исходят от (от Него), это Таухид. Как указывает Коран каждое, сверхъестественное действие пророков совершается с позволения Бога. Граница между Таухидом и Ширком на практике, чтобы принять что-то как самоцель, независимую от Бога, а не как путь к Богу (к Нему).

Философские точки зрения

Аль-Фараби, Ар-Рази и особенно Авиценна выдвинули толкование Таухида в свете разума, взяв за основу Коран и хадисы. До Авиценны дискуссии среди мусульманских философов касались единства Бога как божественного творца и его взаимоотношений с миром как творением. На более ранних философов глубоко повлиял акцент Плотина на Божественной простоте.

َ Можно ли согласовать эту точку зрения с Исламом, особенно вопрос о том, какая роль остается по воле Бога, должно было стать предметом значительных споров в интеллектуальном исламском дискурсе.

Суфийская и ирфанская точки зрения

В исламском мистицизме (суфизм и ирфан ) Таухид — это не только утверждение в речи единства Бога, но и также, что не менее важная, практическая и экзистенциальная реализация этого единства. Это предотвращается путем отказа от концепций. Идеал — радикальное очищение от всего мирского. Согласно Винсенту Дж. Корноллу, можно создать монистический образ Бога (см. Суфийская метафизика ), описав реальность как единое целое, где Бог является единым понятием. которая описывала бы или приписывала все правильные вещи: «Он Первый и Последний, Явный и Имманентный: и Он имеет полное знание обо всем». (Сура 57: 3 ) «многие мусульмане критиковать монизм за то, что он несовместимо с подлинным и абсолютным монотеизмом ислама.

Для мусульманских мистиков (суфиев ) утверждение в речи Бога Единство — это только первый шаг Таухида. Дальнейшие шаги включают духовный опыт для экзистенциальной реализации этого единства. Категории различных шагов Таухида можно найти в трудах мусульманских суфиев, таких как Джунайд Багдади и аль-Газали. Он включает в себя практический отказ от концепций, связанных с миром множественности.. Аль-Джунайд, например, «различает четыре шага, начиная с простого подтверждения единственности, достаточного для обычных высших, и заканчивая высшим рангом, закрепленным за элитой, когда полностью перестает существовать перед своим Господом, таким образом достигая всего фана фи аль-таухид [ уничтожение в единстве] «.

Уничтожение и существование

Согласно концепции Фана, Уничтожение и существование,» Существование человека или эго, или самость… должны быть уничтожены, чтобы он мог достичь своего истинного я, которое является его существованием и существованием с Богом. Все черты характера и привычки человека, все, что относится к его индивидуальному существованию, должно быть полностью отвергнуто и «уничтожен» (махв). Тогда Бог вернет ему его черты характера и все положительное, которым он когда-либо обладал. На этой стадии он будет сознательно и фактически — а не только теоретически — и через духовное осознание, что все он является производным от Бога. Он не что, как луч Атрибутов Бога, проявляющий Скрытое сокровище. «

Единство существования

Первая подробная информация о« Единства существования »(вахдат Аль-Вуджуд) соединяет связана с Ибн Араби. Критики, защитники и западные науки на протяжении веков предлагали Сам Ибн Араби использовал термин «единство его существования» ». Например, согласно аль-Газали «В вуджуд [существовании] нет, кроме Бога… Вуджуд [Существование] принадлежит только Истинному» Газали объясняет, что плод духовного восхождения суфия — это «свидетельство того, что в в. мире нет ничего, кроме Бога, и что «все погибает, кроме Его лица» (Коран 28:88) »

Многие считают бытие или существование правильным обозначением реальности Бога. В то время как все мусульмане верят в связи с тем, что Бог является единым целым, критики считают, что термин «существование» (вуджуд) используется для обозначения существования вещей в этом мире, и что эта доктрина стирает различие между существованием создателя и существованием творения. Защитники утверждали, что Ибн Араби и его последователи представляют «тонкую метафизику, следуя линии формулы ашарита:« Атрибуты не являются ни Богом, ни кем-то другим, кроме Бога ».« Знаки »(аят) и« следы »(атхар) — создания — ни то же самое, что Бог, ни отличные от него, потому что Бог должен понимать как отсутствующий и присутствующий, как трансцендентный, так и имманентный. При правильном понимании вахдат аль-вуджуд проясняет хрупкое равновесие, которое необходимо поддерживать между этими точками зрения. «Шах Вали Аллах из Дели утверждал, что« единство бытия »Ибн Араби было эмпирическим и основано на субъективном опыте озарения или экстаза, а не на онтологической реальности.

Влияние на мусульманскую культуру

Исламская доктрина Ранние мусульмане понимают религию как охватывающую сферу государства, закона и общества, согласно которому все исламское учение основывается на принципе Таухид. несколько способов воздействия Таухида на мусульманскую культуру:

Межличностные отношения

Согласно Корану, одно из следствий правильно задуманных отношений между Богом и человеком., Коран «напоминает» людям два момента: 1. Что Бог един; все Бога, кроме Бога (включая природу), зависит от 2. При всей Своей мощи и славе Бог, по сути, является всемилостивым Богом.

Добро и зло

Согласно Корану, Аллах — прародитель всего, и хорошего. и зло. Как написано в Коране, все человечество создано по воле Аллаха, как доброе, так и злое; и что их природа была предрасположена как таковая с самого начала творения.

Согласно Корану, сатана отклонился от единства Аллаха в истории создания человека, позволив его собственная иерархическая система ценностей, чтобы заменить волю Аллаха: Аллах попросил ангеловиться поклониться Адаму, которого он создал из глины. Сатана отказался, сказав: «Я лучше его; ты создал меня из огня, а его — из глины ». Средневековый мусульманский ученый, аль-Газали, имеется на то, что единственный законный «принцип предпочтения» в глазах Аллаха — это благочестие, пишет: «Каждый раз, когда богатый человек верит, что он лучше бедного, или белый человек считает себя лучше черного, тогда он высокомерен. Он принимает те же иерархические принципы, что и Иблис [сатана] в его джахле [невежестве], и таким образом впадает в ширк [противоположность Таухиду] «.

Секуляризм

Во многих юрисдикциях мира законов Одним из мотивов для принятия этой позиции было уменьшение последствий конфликта между последователями. светской, и что вера вера должна оставаться в сфере частной жизни. различных религий или между приверженцами секуляризма и приверженцами религии. В общественной жизни эта точка зрения настаивает на том, что власть государства превалирует над любыми религиозными властями.

Для некоторых исламских мыслителей эти положения нарушают доктрину Таухид, и поэтому анафема. Если космос — это единое и гармоничное целое, сосредоточенное вокруг всемогущего и вездесущего Бога, они считают, что признание любого другого авторитета высшим — неправильно. По словам одного писателя: «Традиция союзник, мусульманин не является националистом или гражданином национального государства; у него нет политической идентичности, только религиозная принадлежность к Умме. Для традиционного мусульманина ислам — единственный и достаточный идентификационный признак, а национализм и национальные государства — препятствия «. Отсюда идея создания полностью исламского государства или возрожденного халифата.

На практике почти все мусульмане живут своей повседневной жизнью в рамках той или иной национальной юрисдикции и принимают, по крайней мере, часть ограничений, связанных с этим.

Исламское искусство

Стремление сохранить единство и превосходство Бога привело запрету мусульманам создавать изображения или визуальные изображения Бога или любого Пророка, включая Мухаммеда. Изображение человеческого тела в искусстве является спорным вопросом в фикх. Основная проблема заключается в том, что использование статуй или изображения могут вести к идолопоклонству. Доминирующими формами выражения в исламском искусстве, таким образом, стали каллиграфия и арабески.

См. также

• Указательный палец в исламе
• Исламский взгляд на Троицу
• Китаб ат-Таухид
• Притча о тех, кто связывает партнеров с Богом
• Сальвати на
• Шахада
• Ширк
• Тагут
• Такаруб

Ссылки

Дополнительная литература

Энциклопедии

• П.Дж. Bearman; Чт. Бианкис; К.Е. Босуорт; Э. ван Донзель; W.P. Генрихс (ред.). Энциклопедия ислама Интернет. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912. Отсутствует или пусто | title =()
• Ричард К. Мартин; Саид Амир Арджоманд; Марсия Хермансен; Абдулкадер Тайоб; Рошель Дэвис; Джон Оберт Фолл, редакторы (2003). Энциклопедия ислама и мусульманского мира. Справочные книги Макмиллана. ISBN 978-0-02-865603-8. Отсутствует или пусто | title =()
• Линдси Джонс, изд. (2005). Энциклопедия религии (2-е изд.). Справочники Макмиллана. ISBN 978-0-02-865733-2 https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse_v8f2. Отсутствует или пусто | title =()
• Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica, Inc. Отсутствует или пусто | title =()
• Encyclopaedia Islamica. Отсутствует или пусто | title =()

Книги

• Банани Амин, совместное издание: Ричард Г. Ованнисян, Жорж Сабаг (1994), Поэзия и мистицизм в исламе: наследие Руми, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-52 1-45476-X
• Барлас, Асма (2002). Верующие женщины в ислам. Техасский университет Press. ISBN 978-0-292-70904-1.
• Корбин, Генри (2014) [1993]. История исламской философии. Перевод Лиадэн Шеррард; Филип Шеррард. Абингдон, Оксфорд : Рутледж. ISBN 978-0-710-30416-2.
• Уильям Читтик (1983), Суфийский путь любви: духовные учения Руми, Государственный университет Нью-Йорка Йорк Press, ISBN 0-87395-724-5
• Уильям Читтик и Сачико Мурата (2006), Видение Ислам, Издатель: IBTauris, ISBN 1-84511-320-9
• Эрнст, Карл (1984), Слова экстаза в суфизме, Государственный университет Нью-Йорка York Press, ISBN 0-87395-918-3
• Эспозито, Джон (1998). Ислам: прямой путь. Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN 978-0-19-511233-7.
• Готтлиб, Роджер С. (2006), Оксфордский справочник по религии и экологии, Oxford University Press, ASIN B000RKTUVS
• Джонсон, Стив А. (1984), «Четвертый онтологический аргумент Ибн Сины в пользу существования Бога», The Muslim World 74 (3-4), 161–171.
• Кёхлер, Ганс (1982). Концепция монотеизма в исламе и христианстве. Браумюллер. ISBN 978-3-7003-0339-8.
• Мехмет, Озай (1990), Исламская идентичность и развитие: исследования исламской периферии, Ратледж, ASIN: B000FBFF5Y
• Momen, Муджан (1985). Введение в шиитский ислам: история и доктрины двунадесятного шиизма. Издательство Йельского университета. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5.
• Наср, Сейед Хоссейн ; Уильям Читтик (2007). Самое важное. World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 978-1-933316-38-3.
• Рахман, Фазлур (1980), Основные темы Корана, Bibliotheca Islamica, ISBN 0-88297-051-8
• Рамадан, Тарик (2005). Западные мусульмане и будущее ислама. Издательство Оксфордского университета. ISBN 978-0-19-517111-2.
• Хенрик Лагерлунд, изд. (30 сентября 2007 г.). Формирование разума: очерки внутренних чувств и проблемы разума / тела от Авиценны до медицинского просвещения. Springer Science + Business Media. ISBN 978-1-4020-6083-0.
• Табатабае, Сайид Мохаммад Хосайн (1981). Шиитская антология. Перевод: Уильям К. Читтик. Трест Мухаммади Великобритании и Северной Ирландии. ISBN 978-0-87395-510-2.
• Тернер, Колин (2006). Ислам: основы. Рутледж. ISBN 978-0-415-34105-9.

Журнальные статьи

• Роберт Г. Мурисон, Изображение природы в средневековых комментариях Корана, Studia Islamica, 2002
• Аль-Хибри, Азиза Й. (2003). «Исламский взгляд на насилие в семье». 27 Fordham International Law Journal 195.
• Майер, Тоби (2001). «Бурхан ас-Сиддикин Ибн Сины». Журнал исламских исследований. 12 (1): 18–39. doi : 10.1093 / jis / 12.1.18.
• Морведж, Парвиз (1970). «Ибн Сина Авиценна и Малькольм и онтологический аргумент». Монист. 54 (2): 234–249. doi : 10.5840 / monist197054212. ISSN 0026-9662. JSTOR 27902176.

Внешние ссылки

• Концепция таухида в исламе и его аспекты

Таухид ( арабский  : توحيد [ Таухид ] монотеизм, единственность) является выражением наиболее важным принципом ислама , в монотеизм , понимаемой как вера в единого Бога, недоступное воображению, без партнера и не равны. Он составляет его основу ( Asl ad Dîn ) с отклонением Тагута .

Таухид считается первым столпом мусульманской веры Аль-Аман ( арабский  : إيمان ), в то время как чахада является выражением Таухида, представляя, таким образом, первый из пяти столпов религиозной практики , согласно различным интерпретациям. ислама. Концепция, противоположная таухиду, обозначается термином ширк (شِرْكْ) (или ассоциация) и может охватывать различные концепции, противоречащие исламу, такие как, например, ассоциация Бога с идолами.

Определение

Этимология

Его термин происходит от глагола вахада (وَحَّدَ), что означает «делать уникальным» или «провозглашать, что Аллах (Бог) — единственный, у кого есть эта особенность» в более переносном смысле. Борьба ислама с самого начала против других божеств наблюдается в процессе перехода от собственного божественного имени к уникальному и трансцендентному имени Аллах.

Определение и перевод

Таухид можно определить как «божественную уникальность», «фундаментальную догму ислама, отказ от которой ведет к осуждению за ассоцианизм или ширк». В сборнике текстов, опубликованном Католическим институтом, таухид описывается как понятие единства-единства Бога.

Согласно энциклопедии Ла Гранд Ларусс 1971 года, термин Таухид, переведенный как «унитаризм», вызывает доктрину ибн Тумарта (XII век), который, как и Аль-Газали (XI-XII века), отстаивает не буквальное толкование Коран, чтобы защитить божественную уникальность. От этой доктрины происходит название Альмохады , которые следует понимать как «те, кто провозглашает единство Бога». В том же произведении 1972 года таухид ассоциируется с мутазилизмом , движением, которое ставит божественное единство в качестве одного из этих пяти основных столпов. Это движение противоречит буквальному пониманию атрибутов Бога (тогда понимаемому как форма политеизма).

Согласно Revue de l ‘Institut catholique de Paris 1986 года, мусульмане отвергали бы все, что могло поставить под угрозу таухид в рамках концепции политеизма или «ассоцианизма». Таким образом, Таухид мог охватить понятие отказа от любого посредника и любого посредничества в религиозной практике.

Политическое восстановление

Во время гражданской войны в Сирии многие террористические группы, вдохновленные такфири, взяли имя Ат-Таухид, например « Ансар ат-Таухид» или « Лива ат-Таухид» , одна из бывших бригад Свободной сирийской армии .

История мусульманского монотеизма

Монотеизм — это древняя практика, которая практиковалась или находилась под влиянием еврейской религии ; маздеизм ; из зороастризма или Parseeism . Развитие монотеистической еврейской доктрины происходит в контексте благоприятного для такой идеи: вавилонский царь Набонид пытается сделать лунный бог Син единственным богом своей империи, в Греции , в досократиках защищать уникальность божеств против пантеона и ахеменидские преемники из Кира II Великого , сам считал мессия Яхва, влияние на иудейский монотеизм, делая Ahoura Mazda официального бог империи.

«Назаряне»

Коран утверждает, что первоначальное послание всех пророков было в основном сосредоточено на исключительном поклонении Аллаху , Единому Богу и Создателю. Изначально все общины, которые верили в своих пророков и посвящали исключительное поклонение Аллаху, были муахидунами , последователями таухида (монотеистов).

Таким образом, в Коране используется имя Насара «назареяне», данное еврейской общиной Иисусу и первым христианам.

История концепции Таухид

В XVIII — ^го  века , Мухаммад ибн Abdelwahhab написал Китаб-ет Таухид (на французском языке: Книга уникальности , Книга единобожия или единобожие ). Несмотря на то, что эту книгу критикуют за засуху или ошибки, суфий Абдельвахаб Меддеб критикует ее отрицательно , считая, что это будет «эталон, радикализм которого соответствует ожиданиям джихадистов  » ( La Maladie de l’islam ).

В XVIII — ^м  веке , Мухаммад ибн Абд аль-Ваххаба разработал манифест единобожия , основанную на трудах Ибн Ханбаля и Ибн Таймийи .

В 1925 году на французский язык была переведена книга, название которой содержит слово Таухид: слово Таухид появляется, в частности, в названии книги Rissolai al-Tawhid ( ISBN  2 7053 0083 X ) ( Договор о единстве Бога ), чей Название французского перевода — Exposé de la Religion Moslem , книга, написанная Мохамедом Абду и переведенная в 1925 году, а затем в 1965 году.

В 1985 году книга « Путь Бога: три духовных договора» перевела с персидского и арабского языков этот таухид как 69- ^й из 100 духовных трактатов.

Список используемой литературы

Научная библиография

Религиозная библиография

• Ибрагим Аль-Якуби ( пер.  Абдалла Пенот и Абдалла Ди Санза), Доктрина единства, согласно суннизму , Алиф,1999 г., 85  с. ( ISBN  978-2-908087-17-8 )
• Мохамед Абдух , Рисолай ат-Таухид: Представление мусульманской религии: Трактат о единстве Бога , 1897/1925 ( ISBN  978-2-7053-0083-8 и 2-7053-0083-X )

• Safiyyu Ar Rahman Al Mubarakfuri, Нектар с печатью, в Dar al koutoub al ilmiyah ,декабрь 2008, стр.  58-59
• Мохаммед Абед аль-Джабри, Введение в Коран . Магрибские издания, 2010 г.

Статьи по Теме

• Представления о Боге
• Мусульманская вера
• ислам
• Аллах

Примечания и ссылки