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Hindi
Modern Standard Hindi
हिन्दी • Hindī
The word «Hindi» in Devanagari script
Pronunciation	[ˈɦɪn̪d̪iː]
Native to	India
Region	Northern, Eastern, Western, and Central India (Hindi Belt)
Native speakers	L1 speakers: 322 million speakers of Hindi and various related languages reported their language as ‘Hindi’ (2011 census)[1] L2 speakers: 270 million (2016)[2]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Central Western Hindi[3] Hindustani[3] Hindi
Early forms	Shauraseni Prakrit Shauraseni Apabhraṃśa Old Hindi Hindustani Kauravi
Dialects	See Hindi languages
Writing system	Devanagari (official) Kaithi (historical) Mahajani (historical) Laṇḍā (historical)[4] Latin (Hinglish, unofficial[5]) Devanagari Braille
Signed forms	Signed Hindi
Official status
Official language in	India
Recognised minority language in	South Africa[a][6]  United Arab Emirates[b][7]
Regulated by	Central Hindi Directorate[8]
Language codes
ISO 639-1	hi
ISO 639-2	hin
ISO 639-3	hin
Linguist List	hin-hin
Glottolog	hind1269
Linguasphere	59-AAF-qf
Distribution of L1 self-reported speakers of Hindi in India per the 2011 Census.

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Hindi (Devanāgarī: हिन्दी^[c], Hindī), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: मानक हिन्दी Mānak Hindī),^[9] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been described as a standardised and Sanskritised register^[10] of the Hindustani language, which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas of North India.^[11][12][13] Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, is one of the two official languages of the Government of India, along with English.^[14] It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states.^{[15][16][17][18]} Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India.^[19]

Hindi is the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt. It is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi).^[15][16] Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as «Hindi» but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other dialects, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Such languages include Fiji Hindi, which has an official status in Fiji,^[20] and Caribbean Hindustani, which is spoken in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname.^{[21][22][23][24]} Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu, another recognised register of Hindustani as both share a common colloquial base.^[25]

Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English.^[26] If counted together with the mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.^[27][28]

Etymology

The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was borrowed from Classical Persian هندی Hindī (Iranian Persian pronunciation: Hendi), meaning «of or belonging to Hind (India)» (hence, «Indian»).^[29]

Another name Hindavī (हिन्दवी) or Hinduī (हिन्दुई) (from Persian: هندوی «of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people») was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrow in his poetry.^[30][31]

The terms «Hindi» and «Hindu» trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name Sindhu (सिन्धु), referring to the river Indus. The Greek cognates of the same terms are «Indus» (for the river) and «India» (for the land of the river).^[32][33]

History

Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa «corrupt»), which emerged in the 7th century CE.^[34]

The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:^[35]

• Compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding geminate consonants, sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation: Skt. hasta «hand» > Pkt. hattha > hāth
• Loss of all word-final vowels: rātri «night» > rattī > rāt
• Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-): bandha «bond» > bā̃dh
• Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected in schwa deletion): susthira «firm» > sutthira > suthrā
• Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus: apara «other» > avara > aur
• Final -m to -ṽ: grāma «village» > gāma > gāṽ
• Intervocalic -ḍ- to -ṛ- or -l-: taḍāga «pond» > talāv, naḍa «reed» > nal.
• v > b: vivāha «marriage» > byāh

Hindustani

During the period of Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today’s north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh^[36] and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.^{[37][38][39][40][41][42]} The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement,^[43][44] and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,^[45] which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs.^[46][47]

Dialects

Before the standardisation of Hindi on the Delhi dialect, various dialects and languages of the Hindi belt attained prominence through literary standardisation, such as Avadhi and Braj Bhasha. Early Hindi literature came about in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. This body of work included the early epics such as renditions of the Dhola Maru in the Marwari of Marwar,^[48] the Prithviraj Raso in the Braj Bhasha of Braj, and the works of Amir Khusrow in the dialect of Delhi.^[49][50]

Modern Standard Hindi is based on the Delhi dialect,^[34] the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige dialects such as Awadhi and Braj. Urdu – considered another form of Hindustani – acquired linguistic prestige in the latter part of the Mughal period (1800s), and underwent significant Persian influence. Modern Hindi and its literary tradition evolved towards the end of the 18th century.^[51]
John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language, which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what is now present-day Pakistan) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored An English-Hindustani Dictionary, A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language, The Oriental Linguist, and many more. His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script, Nāgarī script, and in Roman transliteration. He is also known for his role in the foundation of University College London and for endowing the Gilchrist Educational Trust.
In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form.^[52] In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.^[53] However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state. ^[54]

Independent India

After independence, the government of India instituted the following conventions:^{[original research?]}

• standardisation of grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee’s report was released in 1958 as A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi.
• standardisation of the orthography, using the Devanagari script, by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing, to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters, and introducing diacritics to express sounds from other languages.

On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing Urdu’s previous usage in British India.^[55][56][57] To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.^[58] Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day.^[59]

Official status

India

Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:

(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.^[21]
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.^[60]

Article 351 of the Indian constitution states:

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351),^[61] with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.^[62]

Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.^[63] Hindi is an official language of Gujarat, along with Gujarati. ^[64] It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.^[65][66][67] Each may also designate a «co-official language»; in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the political formation in power, this language is generally Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories: Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate.^[68][69][70] In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.^[71][72] In 2021, in a Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act case involving Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy, the Bombay High Court claimed Hindi is the national language while refusing Reddy bail, after he argued against his statutory rights being read in Hindi, despite being a native Telugu speaker. Reddy has filed a Special Leave Petition before the Supreme Court, challenging the Bombay High Court’s observation, and contended that it failed to appreciate that Hindi is not the national language in India.^{[73][74] [75]} In 2021, Indian food delivery company Zomato landed in controversy when a customer care executive told an app user from Tamil Nadu, “For your kind information Hindi is our national language.” Zomato responded by firing the employee, after which she was reprimanded and shortly reinstated.^[76][77]

In 2018, The Supreme Court has stayed a judgment of Madhya Pradesh High Court that held that the Hindi version of enactment will prevail if there is a variation in its Hindi version and English version. The prominence thus attached to English over Hindi in the judgement underlines the social significance of English over Hindi. ^[78]

Fiji

Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji.^[79][80] It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji,^[81] where it referred to it as «Hindustani», however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called «Fiji Hindi» as the official language.^[82] It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.^[79]

Nepal

Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census, and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.^[83] A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha, was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies; there was general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept «inactive» as vice-president. An «angry» Jha said, “I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English.”^[84]

South Africa

Hindi is a protected language in South Africa. According to the Constitution of South Africa, the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.^[6] According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them — of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline.^[85]

United Arab Emirates

Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.^[d][86] As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue.^[87]

Geographical distribution

Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains the Hindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English.^[60]

In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong, Assam who speak other languages natively.^[88] In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.^[89]

Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.^[90]

A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films, songs and actors in the region.^[91][92]

Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the «Hindi Belt» of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 863,077 in United States of America;^[93][94] 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji;^[79] 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname;^[95] 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in United Kingdom;^[96] 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago;^[95] 3,000 in Singapore.

Comparison with Modern Standard Urdu

Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.^[97] Both Hindi & Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.^[25][98][99] However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more Sanskrit-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.^[100] Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar,^[13][25][98] a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu.^{[97][13][25][12]} Hindi is the most commonly used official language in India. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 official languages of India, also having official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Telangana^[101], Andhra Pradesh^[102] and Bihar.^[103]

Script

Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida. Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi.^[104]

Romanization

The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.

Romanized Hindi, also called Hinglish, is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanized Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi.^[5]

Phonology

Vocabulary

Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:

• Tatsam (तत्सम «same as that») words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence of final case inflections).^[105] They include words inherited from Sanskrit via Prakrit which have survived without modification (e.g. Hindi नाम nām / Sanskrit नाम nāma, «name»; Hindi कर्म karm / Sanskrit कर्म karma, «deed, action; karma»),^[106] as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g. प्रार्थना prārthanā, «prayer»).^[107] Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit. Amongst nouns, the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
• Ardhatatsam (अर्धतत्सम «semi-tatsama») words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed. (e.g. Hindi सूरज sūraj from Sanskrit सूर्य sūrya)
• Tadbhav (तद्भव «born of that») words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g. Sanskrit कर्म karma, «deed» becomes Shauraseni Prakrit कम्म kamma, and eventually Hindi काम kām, «work») and are spelled differently from Sanskrit.^[105]
• Deshaj (देशज) words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are onomatopoetic words or ones borrowed from local non-Indo-Aryan languages.
• Videshī (विदेशी «foreign») words: These include all loanwords from non-indigenous languages. The most frequent source languages in this category are Persian, Arabic, English and Portuguese. Examples are क़िला qila «fort» from Persian, कमेटी kameṭī from English committee and साबुन sābun «soap» from Arabic.

Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English.^[108]

Prakrit

Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit, in the form of tadbhava words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā.

Sanskrit

Much of Modern Standard Hindi’s vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.

Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in native Hindi, causing difficulties in pronunciation.^[109]

As a part of the process of Sanskritization, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ «telephone», literally «far-speech» and dūrdarśan «television», literally «far-sight» have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings (ṭeli)fon and ṭīvī.^[110]

Persian

Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani.^{[100][111][page needed]} Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g. Muhammad, islām) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat, were assimilated into Hindi.^[112]

Post-Partition the Indian government advocated for a policy of Sanskritization leading to a marginalisation of the Persian element in Hindi. However, many Persian words (e.g. muśkil «difficult», bas «enough», havā «air», x(a)yāl «thought», kitab «Book», khud «Self») have remained entrenched in Modern Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script.

Arabic

Arabic also shows influence in Hindi, often via Persian but sometimes directly.^[113]

Sample list of loaned Arabic words used in Hindi

Serial No.	Arabic Word	Hindi word (Devanagri Script)
1	waqt (وقت)	वक़्त
2	qamees (قميص)	क़मीस
3	book (کتاب)	किताब
4	destiny (नसीब)	नसीब
5	chair (کرسی)	कुर्सी
6	calculation (حساب)	हिसाब
7	law (قانون)	क़ानून
8	news (خبر)	ख़बर
9	world (دنیا)	दुनिया[114]

Media

Literature

Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being Bhakti (devotional – Kabir, Raskhan); Śṛṇgār (beauty – Keshav, Bihari); Vīgāthā (epic); and Ādhunik (modern).

Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Modern Standard Hindi. During the British Raj, Hindustani became the prestige dialect.

Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.^[115] The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, or Sāhityik, Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.^{[citation needed]}

The Dvivedī Yug («Age of Dwivedi») in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing Modern Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chāyāvād (shadow-ism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chāyāvādī. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chāyāvādī poets.

Uttar Ādhunik is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the Chāyāvādī movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.

Internet

Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.^[116] Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions.

Sample text

The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):

Hindi in Devanagari Script

अनुच्छेद 1(एक): सभी मनुष्य जन्म से मर्यादा और अधिकारों में स्वतंत्र और समान होते हैं। वे तर्क और विवेक से संपन्न हैं तथा उन्हें भ्रातृत्व की भावना से परस्पर के प्रति कार्य करना चाहिए।

Transliteration (ISO)

Anucchēd 1 (ēk): Sabhī manuṣya janma sē maryādā aur adhikārō̃ mē̃ svatantra aur samān hōtē haĩ. Vē tark aur vivēk sē sampanna haĩ tathā unhē̃ bhrātr̥tva kī bhāvanā sē paraspar kē pratī kārya karnā cāhiē.

Transcription (IPA)

[ənʊtːʃʰeːd eːk | səbʰiː mənʊʂjə dʒənmə seː məɾjaːd̪aː ɔːɾ əd̪ʰɪkaːɾõː mẽː sʋət̪ənt̪ɾə ɔːɾ səmaːn hoːteː hɛ̃ː‖ ʋeː t̪əɾk ɔːɾ ʋɪʋeːk seː səmpənːə hɛ̃ː t̪ətʰaː ʊnʰẽː bʰɾaːtɾɪt̪ʋə kiː bʰaːʋənaː seː pəɾəspəɾ keː pɾət̪iː kaːɾjə kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː‖]

Gloss (word-to-word)

Article 1 (one) – All humans birth from dignity and rights in independent and equal are. They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.

Translation (grammatical)

Article 1 – All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity.

See also

• Hindi Belt
• Bengali Language Movement (Manbhum)
• Hindi Divas – the official day to celebrate Hindi as a language.
• Languages of India
• Languages with official status in India
• Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages
• List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin
• List of Hindi channels in Europe (by type)
• List of languages by number of native speakers in India
• List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi
• World Hindi Secretariat

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

• Hindi at Curlie
• The Union: Official Language
• Official Unicode Chart for Devanagari (PDF)

Hindi
Modern Standard Hindi
हिन्दी • Hindī
The word «Hindi» in Devanagari script
Pronunciation	[ˈɦɪn̪d̪iː]
Native to	India
Region	Northern, Eastern, Western, and Central India (Hindi Belt)
Native speakers	L1 speakers: 322 million speakers of Hindi and various related languages reported their language as ‘Hindi’ (2011 census)[1] L2 speakers: 270 million (2016)[2]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Central Western Hindi[3] Hindustani[3] Hindi
Early forms	Shauraseni Prakrit Shauraseni Apabhraṃśa Old Hindi Hindustani Kauravi
Dialects	See Hindi languages
Writing system	Devanagari (official) Kaithi (historical) Mahajani (historical) Laṇḍā (historical)[4] Latin (Hinglish, unofficial[5]) Devanagari Braille
Signed forms	Signed Hindi
Official status
Official language in	India
Recognised minority language in	South Africa[a][6]  United Arab Emirates[b][7]
Regulated by	Central Hindi Directorate[8]
Language codes
ISO 639-1	hi
ISO 639-2	hin
ISO 639-3	hin
Linguist List	hin-hin
Glottolog	hind1269
Linguasphere	59-AAF-qf
Distribution of L1 self-reported speakers of Hindi in India per the 2011 Census.

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Hindi (Devanāgarī: हिन्दी^[c], Hindī), or more precisely Modern Standard Hindi (Devanagari: मानक हिन्दी Mānak Hindī),^[9] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in the Hindi Belt region encompassing parts of northern, central, eastern, and western India. Hindi has been described as a standardised and Sanskritised register^[10] of the Hindustani language, which itself is based primarily on the Khariboli dialect of Delhi and neighbouring areas of North India.^[11][12][13] Hindi, written in the Devanagari script, is one of the two official languages of the Government of India, along with English.^[14] It is an official language in nine states and three union territories and an additional official language in three other states.^{[15][16][17][18]} Hindi is also one of the 22 scheduled languages of the Republic of India.^[19]

Hindi is the lingua franca of the Hindi Belt. It is also spoken, to a lesser extent, in other parts of India (usually in a simplified or pidginised variety such as Bazaar Hindustani or Haflong Hindi).^[15][16] Outside India, several other languages are recognised officially as «Hindi» but do not refer to the Standard Hindi language described here and instead descend from other dialects, such as Awadhi and Bhojpuri. Such languages include Fiji Hindi, which has an official status in Fiji,^[20] and Caribbean Hindustani, which is spoken in Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, and Suriname.^{[21][22][23][24]} Apart from the script and formal vocabulary, standard Hindi is mutually intelligible with standard Urdu, another recognised register of Hindustani as both share a common colloquial base.^[25]

Hindi is the fourth most-spoken first language in the world, after Mandarin, Spanish and English.^[26] If counted together with the mutually intelligible Urdu, it is the third most-spoken language in the world, after Mandarin and English.^[27][28]

Etymology

The term Hindī originally was used to refer to inhabitants of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It was borrowed from Classical Persian هندی Hindī (Iranian Persian pronunciation: Hendi), meaning «of or belonging to Hind (India)» (hence, «Indian»).^[29]

Another name Hindavī (हिन्दवी) or Hinduī (हिन्दुई) (from Persian: هندوی «of or belonging to the Hindu/Indian people») was often used in the past, for example by Amir Khusrow in his poetry.^[30][31]

The terms «Hindi» and «Hindu» trace back to Old Persian which derived these names from the Sanskrit name Sindhu (सिन्धु), referring to the river Indus. The Greek cognates of the same terms are «Indus» (for the river) and «India» (for the land of the river).^[32][33]

History

Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi

Like other Indo-Aryan languages, Hindi is a direct descendant of an early form of Vedic Sanskrit, through Shauraseni Prakrit and Śauraseni Apabhraṃśa (from Sanskrit apabhraṃśa «corrupt»), which emerged in the 7th century CE.^[34]

The sound changes that characterised the transition from Middle Indo-Aryan to Hindi are:^[35]

• Compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding geminate consonants, sometimes with spontaneous nasalisation: Skt. hasta «hand» > Pkt. hattha > hāth
• Loss of all word-final vowels: rātri «night» > rattī > rāt
• Formation of nasalised long vowels from nasal consonants (-VNC- > -V̄̃C-): bandha «bond» > bā̃dh
• Loss of unaccented or unstressed short vowels (reflected in schwa deletion): susthira «firm» > sutthira > suthrā
• Collapsing of adjacent vowels (including separated by a hiatus: apara «other» > avara > aur
• Final -m to -ṽ: grāma «village» > gāma > gāṽ
• Intervocalic -ḍ- to -ṛ- or -l-: taḍāga «pond» > talāv, naḍa «reed» > nal.
• v > b: vivāha «marriage» > byāh

Hindustani

During the period of Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today’s north India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh^[36] and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.^{[37][38][39][40][41][42]} The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement,^[43][44] and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,^[45] which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs.^[46][47]

Dialects

Before the standardisation of Hindi on the Delhi dialect, various dialects and languages of the Hindi belt attained prominence through literary standardisation, such as Avadhi and Braj Bhasha. Early Hindi literature came about in the 12th and 13th centuries CE. This body of work included the early epics such as renditions of the Dhola Maru in the Marwari of Marwar,^[48] the Prithviraj Raso in the Braj Bhasha of Braj, and the works of Amir Khusrow in the dialect of Delhi.^[49][50]

Modern Standard Hindi is based on the Delhi dialect,^[34] the vernacular of Delhi and the surrounding region, which came to replace earlier prestige dialects such as Awadhi and Braj. Urdu – considered another form of Hindustani – acquired linguistic prestige in the latter part of the Mughal period (1800s), and underwent significant Persian influence. Modern Hindi and its literary tradition evolved towards the end of the 18th century.^[51]
John Gilchrist was principally known for his study of the Hindustani language, which was adopted as the lingua franca of northern India (including what is now present-day Pakistan) by British colonists and indigenous people. He compiled and authored An English-Hindustani Dictionary, A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language, The Oriental Linguist, and many more. His lexicon of Hindustani was published in the Perso-Arabic script, Nāgarī script, and in Roman transliteration. He is also known for his role in the foundation of University College London and for endowing the Gilchrist Educational Trust.
In the late 19th century, a movement to further develop Hindi as a standardised form of Hindustani separate from Urdu took form.^[52] In 1881, Bihar accepted Hindi as its sole official language, replacing Urdu, and thus became the first state of India to adopt Hindi.^[53] However, in 2014, Urdu was accorded second official language status in the state. ^[54]

Independent India

After independence, the government of India instituted the following conventions:^{[original research?]}

• standardisation of grammar: In 1954, the Government of India set up a committee to prepare a grammar of Hindi; The committee’s report was released in 1958 as A Basic Grammar of Modern Hindi.
• standardisation of the orthography, using the Devanagari script, by the Central Hindi Directorate of the Ministry of Education and Culture to bring about uniformity in writing, to improve the shape of some Devanagari characters, and introducing diacritics to express sounds from other languages.

On 14 September 1949, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted Hindi written in the Devanagari script as the official language of the Republic of India replacing Urdu’s previous usage in British India.^[55][56][57] To this end, several stalwarts rallied and lobbied pan-India in favour of Hindi, most notably Beohar Rajendra Simha along with Hazari Prasad Dwivedi, Kaka Kalelkar, Maithili Sharan Gupt and Seth Govind Das who even debated in Parliament on this issue. As such, on the 50th birthday of Beohar Rajendra Simha on 14 September 1949, the efforts came to fruition following the adoption of Hindi as the official language.^[58] Now, it is celebrated as Hindi Day.^[59]

Official status

India

Part XVII of the Indian Constitution deals with the official language of the Indian Commonwealth. Under Article 343, the official languages of the Union have been prescribed, which includes Hindi in Devanagari script and English:

(1) The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script. The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union shall be the international form of Indian numerals.^[21]
(2) Notwithstanding anything in clause (1), for a period of fifteen years from the commencement of this Constitution, the English language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement: Provided that the President may, during the said period, by order authorise the use of the Hindi language in addition to the English language and of the Devanagari form of numerals in addition to the international form of Indian numerals for any of the official purposes of the Union.^[60]

Article 351 of the Indian constitution states:

It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression for all the elements of the composite culture of India and to secure its enrichment by assimilating without interfering with its genius, the forms, style and expressions used in Hindustani and in the other languages of India specified in the Eighth Schedule, and by drawing, wherever necessary or desirable, for its vocabulary, primarily on Sanskrit and secondarily on other languages.

It was envisioned that Hindi would become the sole working language of the Union Government by 1965 (per directives in Article 344 (2) and Article 351),^[61] with state governments being free to function in the language of their own choice. However, widespread resistance to the imposition of Hindi on non-native speakers, especially in South India (such as those in Tamil Nadu) led to the passage of the Official Languages Act of 1963, which provided for the continued use of English indefinitely for all official purposes, although the constitutional directive for the Union Government to encourage the spread of Hindi was retained and has strongly influenced its policies.^[62]

Article 344 (2b) stipulates that the official language commission shall be constituted every ten years to recommend steps for progressive use of Hindi language and imposing restrictions on the use of the English language by the union government. In practice, the official language commissions are constantly endeavouring to promote Hindi but not imposing restrictions on English in official use by the union government.

At the state level, Hindi is the official language of the following Indian states: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Mizoram, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand.^[63] Hindi is an official language of Gujarat, along with Gujarati. ^[64] It acts as an additional official language of West Bengal in blocks and sub-divisions with more than 10% of the population speaking Hindi.^[65][66][67] Each may also designate a «co-official language»; in Uttar Pradesh, for instance, depending on the political formation in power, this language is generally Urdu. Similarly, Hindi is accorded the status of official language in the following Union Territories: Delhi, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu.

Although there is no specification of a national language in the constitution, it is a widely held belief that Hindi is the national language of India. This is often a source of friction and contentious debate.^[68][69][70] In 2010, the Gujarat High Court clarified that Hindi is not the national language of India because the constitution does not mention it as such.^[71][72] In 2021, in a Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act case involving Gangam Sudhir Kumar Reddy, the Bombay High Court claimed Hindi is the national language while refusing Reddy bail, after he argued against his statutory rights being read in Hindi, despite being a native Telugu speaker. Reddy has filed a Special Leave Petition before the Supreme Court, challenging the Bombay High Court’s observation, and contended that it failed to appreciate that Hindi is not the national language in India.^{[73][74] [75]} In 2021, Indian food delivery company Zomato landed in controversy when a customer care executive told an app user from Tamil Nadu, “For your kind information Hindi is our national language.” Zomato responded by firing the employee, after which she was reprimanded and shortly reinstated.^[76][77]

In 2018, The Supreme Court has stayed a judgment of Madhya Pradesh High Court that held that the Hindi version of enactment will prevail if there is a variation in its Hindi version and English version. The prominence thus attached to English over Hindi in the judgement underlines the social significance of English over Hindi. ^[78]

Fiji

Outside Asia, the Awadhi language (an Eastern Hindi dialect) with influence from Bhojpuri, Bihari languages, Fijian and English is spoken in Fiji.^[79][80] It is an official language in Fiji as per the 1997 Constitution of Fiji,^[81] where it referred to it as «Hindustani», however in the 2013 Constitution of Fiji, it is simply called «Fiji Hindi» as the official language.^[82] It is spoken by 380,000 people in Fiji.^[79]

Nepal

Hindi is spoken as a first language by about 77,569 people in Nepal according to the 2011 Nepal census, and further by 1,225,950 people as a second language.^[83] A Hindi proponent, Indian-born Paramananda Jha, was elected vice-president of Nepal. He took his oath of office in Hindi in July 2008. This created protests in the streets for 5 days; students burnt his effigies; there was general strike in 22 districts. Nepal Supreme Court ruled in 2009 that his oath in Hindi was invalid and he was kept «inactive» as vice-president. An «angry» Jha said, “I cannot be compelled to take the oath now in Nepali. I might rather take it in English.”^[84]

South Africa

Hindi is a protected language in South Africa. According to the Constitution of South Africa, the Pan South African Language Board must promote and ensure respect for Hindi along with other languages.^[6] According to a doctoral dissertation by Rajend Mesthrie in 1985, although Hindi and other Indian languages have existed in South Africa for the last 125 years, there are no academic studies of any of them — of their use in South Africa, their evolution and current decline.^[85]

United Arab Emirates

Hindi is adopted as the third official court language in the Emirate of Abu Dhabi.^[d][86] As a result of this status, the Indian workforce in UAE can file their complaints to the labour courts in the country in their own mother-tongue.^[87]

Geographical distribution

Hindi is the lingua franca of northern India (which contains the Hindi Belt), as well as an official language of the Government of India, along with English.^[60]

In Northeast India a pidgin known as Haflong Hindi has developed as a lingua franca for the people living in Haflong, Assam who speak other languages natively.^[88] In Arunachal Pradesh, Hindi emerged as a lingua franca among locals who speak over 50 dialects natively.^[89]

Hindi is quite easy to understand for many Pakistanis, who speak Urdu, which, like Hindi, is a standard register of the Hindustani language; additionally, Indian media are widely viewed in Pakistan.^[90]

A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films, songs and actors in the region.^[91][92]

Hindi is also spoken by a large population of Madheshis (people having roots in north-India but having migrated to Nepal over hundreds of years) of Nepal. Apart from this, Hindi is spoken by the large Indian diaspora which hails from, or has its origin from the «Hindi Belt» of India. A substantially large North Indian diaspora lives in countries like the United States of America, the United Kingdom, the United Arab Emirates, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, South Africa, Fiji and Mauritius, where it is natively spoken at home and among their own Hindustani-speaking communities. Outside India, Hindi speakers are 8 million in Nepal; 863,077 in United States of America;^[93][94] 450,170 in Mauritius; 380,000 in Fiji;^[79] 250,292 in South Africa; 150,000 in Suriname;^[95] 100,000 in Uganda; 45,800 in United Kingdom;^[96] 20,000 in New Zealand; 20,000 in Germany; 26,000 in Trinidad and Tobago;^[95] 3,000 in Singapore.

Comparison with Modern Standard Urdu

Linguistically, Hindi and Urdu are two registers of the same language and are mutually intelligible.^[97] Both Hindi & Urdu share a core vocabulary of native Prakrit and Sanskrit-derived words.^[25][98][99] However, Hindi is written in the Devanagari script and contains more Sanskrit-derived words than Urdu, whereas Urdu is written in the Perso-Arabic script and uses more Arabic and Persian loanwords compared to Hindi.^[100] Because of this, as well as the fact that the two registers share an identical grammar,^[13][25][98] a consensus of linguists consider them to be two standardised forms of the same language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu.^{[97][13][25][12]} Hindi is the most commonly used official language in India. Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan and is one of 22 official languages of India, also having official status in Uttar Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Delhi, Telangana^[101], Andhra Pradesh^[102] and Bihar.^[103]

Script

Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, an abugida. Devanagari consists of 11 vowels and 33 consonants and is written from left to right. Unlike Sanskrit, Devanagari is not entirely phonetic for Hindi, especially failing to mark schwa deletion in spoken Standard Hindi.^[104]

Romanization

The Government of India uses Hunterian transliteration as its official system of writing Hindi in the Latin script. Various other systems also exist, such as IAST, ITRANS and ISO 15919.

Romanized Hindi, also called Hinglish, is the dominant form of Hindi online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanized Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi.^[5]

Phonology

Vocabulary

Traditionally, Hindi words are divided into five principal categories according to their etymology:

• Tatsam (तत्सम «same as that») words: These are words which are spelled the same in Hindi as in Sanskrit (except for the absence of final case inflections).^[105] They include words inherited from Sanskrit via Prakrit which have survived without modification (e.g. Hindi नाम nām / Sanskrit नाम nāma, «name»; Hindi कर्म karm / Sanskrit कर्म karma, «deed, action; karma»),^[106] as well as forms borrowed directly from Sanskrit in more modern times (e.g. प्रार्थना prārthanā, «prayer»).^[107] Pronunciation, however, conforms to Hindi norms and may differ from that of classical Sanskrit. Amongst nouns, the tatsam word could be the Sanskrit non-inflected word-stem, or it could be the nominative singular form in the Sanskrit nominal declension.
• Ardhatatsam (अर्धतत्सम «semi-tatsama») words: Such words are typically earlier loanwords from Sanskrit which have undergone sound changes subsequent to being borrowed. (e.g. Hindi सूरज sūraj from Sanskrit सूर्य sūrya)
• Tadbhav (तद्भव «born of that») words: These are native Hindi words derived from Sanskrit after undergoing phonological rules (e.g. Sanskrit कर्म karma, «deed» becomes Shauraseni Prakrit कम्म kamma, and eventually Hindi काम kām, «work») and are spelled differently from Sanskrit.^[105]
• Deshaj (देशज) words: These are words that were not borrowings but do not derive from attested Indo-Aryan words either. Belonging to this category are onomatopoetic words or ones borrowed from local non-Indo-Aryan languages.
• Videshī (विदेशी «foreign») words: These include all loanwords from non-indigenous languages. The most frequent source languages in this category are Persian, Arabic, English and Portuguese. Examples are क़िला qila «fort» from Persian, कमेटी kameṭī from English committee and साबुन sābun «soap» from Arabic.

Hindi also makes extensive use of loan translation (calqueing) and occasionally phono-semantic matching of English.^[108]

Prakrit

Hindi has naturally inherited a large portion of its vocabulary from Shauraseni Prakrit, in the form of tadbhava words. This process usually involves compensatory lengthening of vowels preceding consonant clusters in Prakrit, e.g. Sanskrit tīkṣṇa > Prakrit tikkha > Hindi tīkhā.

Sanskrit

Much of Modern Standard Hindi’s vocabulary is borrowed from Sanskrit as tatsam borrowings, especially in technical and academic fields. The formal Hindi standard, from which much of the Persian, Arabic and English vocabulary has been replaced by neologisms compounding tatsam words, is called Śuddh Hindi (pure Hindi), and is viewed as a more prestigious dialect over other more colloquial forms of Hindi.

Excessive use of tatsam words sometimes creates problems for native speakers. They may have Sanskrit consonant clusters which do not exist in native Hindi, causing difficulties in pronunciation.^[109]

As a part of the process of Sanskritization, new words are coined using Sanskrit components to be used as replacements for supposedly foreign vocabulary. Usually these neologisms are calques of English words already adopted into spoken Hindi. Some terms such as dūrbhāṣ «telephone», literally «far-speech» and dūrdarśan «television», literally «far-sight» have even gained some currency in formal Hindi in the place of the English borrowings (ṭeli)fon and ṭīvī.^[110]

Persian

Hindi also features significant Persian influence, standardised from spoken Hindustani.^{[100][111][page needed]} Early borrowings, beginning in the mid-12th century, were specific to Islam (e.g. Muhammad, islām) and so Persian was simply an intermediary for Arabic. Later, under the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal Empire, Persian became the primary administrative language in the Hindi heartland. Persian borrowings reached a heyday in the 17th century, pervading all aspects of life. Even grammatical constructs, namely the izafat, were assimilated into Hindi.^[112]

Post-Partition the Indian government advocated for a policy of Sanskritization leading to a marginalisation of the Persian element in Hindi. However, many Persian words (e.g. muśkil «difficult», bas «enough», havā «air», x(a)yāl «thought», kitab «Book», khud «Self») have remained entrenched in Modern Standard Hindi, and a larger amount are still used in Urdu poetry written in the Devanagari script.

Arabic

Arabic also shows influence in Hindi, often via Persian but sometimes directly.^[113]

Sample list of loaned Arabic words used in Hindi

Serial No.	Arabic Word	Hindi word (Devanagri Script)
1	waqt (وقت)	वक़्त
2	qamees (قميص)	क़मीस
3	book (کتاب)	किताब
4	destiny (नसीब)	नसीब
5	chair (کرسی)	कुर्सी
6	calculation (حساب)	हिसाब
7	law (قانون)	क़ानून
8	news (خبر)	ख़बर
9	world (دنیا)	दुनिया[114]

Media

Literature

Hindi literature is broadly divided into four prominent forms or styles, being Bhakti (devotional – Kabir, Raskhan); Śṛṇgār (beauty – Keshav, Bihari); Vīgāthā (epic); and Ādhunik (modern).

Medieval Hindi literature is marked by the influence of Bhakti movement and the composition of long, epic poems. It was primarily written in other varieties of Hindi, particularly Avadhi and Braj Bhasha, but to a degree also in Delhavi, the basis for Modern Standard Hindi. During the British Raj, Hindustani became the prestige dialect.

Chandrakanta, written by Devaki Nandan Khatri in 1888, is considered the first authentic work of prose in modern Hindi.^[115] The person who brought realism in Hindi prose literature was Munshi Premchand, who is considered the most revered figure in the world of Hindi fiction and progressive movement. Literary, or Sāhityik, Hindi was popularised by the writings of Swami Dayananda Saraswati, Bhartendu Harishchandra and others. The rising numbers of newspapers and magazines made Hindustani popular with educated people.^{[citation needed]}

The Dvivedī Yug («Age of Dwivedi») in Hindi literature lasted from 1900 to 1918. It is named after Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, who played a major role in establishing Modern Standard Hindi in poetry and broadening the acceptable subjects of Hindi poetry from the traditional ones of religion and romantic love.

In the 20th century, Hindi literature saw a romantic upsurge. This is known as Chāyāvād (shadow-ism) and the literary figures belonging to this school are known as Chāyāvādī. Jaishankar Prasad, Suryakant Tripathi ‘Nirala’, Mahadevi Varma and Sumitranandan Pant, are the four major Chāyāvādī poets.

Uttar Ādhunik is the post-modernist period of Hindi literature, marked by a questioning of early trends that copied the West as well as the excessive ornamentation of the Chāyāvādī movement, and by a return to simple language and natural themes.

Internet

Hindi literature, music, and film have all been disseminated via the internet. In 2015, Google reported a 94% increase in Hindi-content consumption year-on-year, adding that 21% of users in India prefer content in Hindi.^[116] Many Hindi newspapers also offer digital editions.

Sample text

The following is a sample text in High Hindi, of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (by the United Nations):

Hindi in Devanagari Script

अनुच्छेद 1(एक): सभी मनुष्य जन्म से मर्यादा और अधिकारों में स्वतंत्र और समान होते हैं। वे तर्क और विवेक से संपन्न हैं तथा उन्हें भ्रातृत्व की भावना से परस्पर के प्रति कार्य करना चाहिए।

Transliteration (ISO)

Anucchēd 1 (ēk): Sabhī manuṣya janma sē maryādā aur adhikārō̃ mē̃ svatantra aur samān hōtē haĩ. Vē tark aur vivēk sē sampanna haĩ tathā unhē̃ bhrātr̥tva kī bhāvanā sē paraspar kē pratī kārya karnā cāhiē.

Transcription (IPA)

[ənʊtːʃʰeːd eːk | səbʰiː mənʊʂjə dʒənmə seː məɾjaːd̪aː ɔːɾ əd̪ʰɪkaːɾõː mẽː sʋət̪ənt̪ɾə ɔːɾ səmaːn hoːteː hɛ̃ː‖ ʋeː t̪əɾk ɔːɾ ʋɪʋeːk seː səmpənːə hɛ̃ː t̪ətʰaː ʊnʰẽː bʰɾaːtɾɪt̪ʋə kiː bʰaːʋənaː seː pəɾəspəɾ keː pɾət̪iː kaːɾjə kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː‖]

Gloss (word-to-word)

Article 1 (one) – All humans birth from dignity and rights in independent and equal are. They logic and conscience from endowed are and they fraternity in the spirit of each other towards work should.

Translation (grammatical)

Article 1 – All humans are born independent and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with logic and conscience and they should work towards each other in the spirit of fraternity.

See also

• Hindi Belt
• Bengali Language Movement (Manbhum)
• Hindi Divas – the official day to celebrate Hindi as a language.
• Languages of India
• Languages with official status in India
• Indian states by most spoken scheduled languages
• List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin
• List of Hindi channels in Europe (by type)
• List of languages by number of native speakers in India
• List of Sanskrit and Persian roots in Hindi
• World Hindi Secretariat

Notes

References

Bibliography

External links

• Hindi at Curlie
• The Union: Official Language
• Official Unicode Chart for Devanagari (PDF)

Хинди
Самоназвание:	हिन्दी
Страны:	Индия, Пакистан и Фиджи (хиндустани)
Регионы:	Уттар-Прадеш, Мадхья-Прадеш, Харьяна, Бихар, Раджастхан, Дели
Официальный статус:	Индия  Фиджи
Регулирующая организация:	Центральный директорат по вопросам языка хинди
Общее число говорящих:	Родной: ~ 490 млн (2008)[1] Второй язык: 120—225 млн (1999)[2]
Рейтинг:	3-4
Классификация
Категория:	Языки Евразии
Индоевропейская семья Индоиранская ветвь Индоарийская группа Центральная подгруппа
Письменность:	деванагари
Языковые коды
ГОСТ 7.75–97:	хин 770
ISO 639-1:	hi
ISO 639-2:	hin
ISO 639-3:	hin
См. также: Проект:Лингвистика

Хи́нди (дев. हिन्दी) — название индоарийского языка, или диалектного континуума языков, распространённых преимущественно в северных и центральных регионах Индии^[3].

Языки хинди и урду близки друг к другу (см. хиндустани). Последний отличается бо́льшим числом арабских и персидских заимствований, а также тем, что использует арабский алфавит, в то время как традиционное письмо хинди — слоговая азбука деванагари.

Хинди в широком и узком смысле термина

В самом широком смысле слова хинди обозначает совокупность «языков хинди», диалектный континуум на территории пояса хинди на севере Индии. В этом смысле в «хинди» включаются такие языки, как бходжпури (помимо Индии имеет большое значение в Суринаме и на Маврикии), средневековый литературный язык авадхи и фиджийский хинди. Раджастхани рассматривается то как диалект хинди, то как отдельный язык, хотя отсутствие доминирующего диалекта в качестве возможной основы для создания стандартного языка препятствует его признанию. Три других идиома (майтхили, чхаттисгархи и догри) получили статус официальных языков в штатах их распространения, поэтому сейчас считаются отдельными языками. Носители урду не включаются в число хиндиязычных в Индии и Пакистане невзирая на то, что урду — основной язык для многочисленной общины индийских мусульман и государственный язык Пакистана — во многих отношениях практически неотличим от хинди. Непальский язык, будучи языком независимого государства, никогда не включался в число «языков хинди» несмотря на то, что другие языки пахари, к которым он относится, входят в эту общность.

В более узком смысле слова, термин «хинди» включает в себя диалекты и стандартные языки кластера «западный хинди», в том числе брадж, средневековый литературный язык хиндиязычной литературы, нынешний престижный диалект западного хинди, кхари-боли, бывший языком двора Великих Моголов, языком британской колониальной администрации и ставший основой для современных стандартных хинди и урду. Иногда термин «кхари-боли» используется как синоним термина «хинди». Урду тоже часто исключается из числа языков кластера «западный хинди», хотя и относится к ним по своим признакам. Термин хиндустани, известный с колониальных времён, в настоящий момент несколько устарел, продолжает использоваться для обозначения урду и хинди, как языка индуистского населения.

В своём наиболее узком смысле термин «хинди» обозначает стандартный хинди, санскритизированную форму кхари-боли, очищенную от некоторых персидских заимствований, появившихся во время правления Моголов. Конституция Индии закрепляет за хинди, использующим письмо деванагари, статус государственного языка^[4], вместе с урду, сохраняющим арабо-персидскую графику, и ещё тремя вариантами хинди в широком смысле, упомянутыми среди 22 официальных языков Индии^[5].

Распространение и статус хинди

Стандартный хинди, ставший 26 января 1965 г. официальным языком Индии (вместе с английским), используется центральным правительством^[6][7]. Хинди распространён главным образом в северных штатах (Раджастхан, Дели, Хариана, Уттаракханд, Уттар-Прадеш, Мадхья-Прадеш, Чхаттисгарх, Химачал-Прадеш, Джаркханд и Бихар). Он является вторым по значению языком на Андаманских и Никобарских островах, а также используется во всей северной и центральной Индии наряду с такими региональными языками, как панджаби, гуджарати, маратхи и бенгали. Стандартный хинди также может быть понятен в некоторых других областях Индии и соседних странах (Непале, Бангладеш и Пакистане).

Согласно Конституции Фиджи^[8], хиндустани вместе с английским и фиджийским является официальным языком. При обращении в государственные органы власти на центральном и местном уровне каждый имеет право делать это на английском, фиджийском или хиндустани либо лично, либо при посредничестве компетентного переводчика^[9]. На хинди разговаривают все фиджийцы с индийскими корнями. На западе Вити Леву и севере Вануа-Леву он является распространённым языком, используемым для общения между фиджийцами индийского происхождения и коренными фиджийцами. Носители фиджийского хинди составляют 48 % населения. К ним относятся и те индо-фиджийцы, предки которых эмигрировали на архипелаг из областей Индии, не входящих в хиндиязычный ареал.

Численность носителей хинди

Хинди по численности говорящих на нём стоит на одном из первых мест в мире (2—5), однозначно уступая по числу носителей лишь китайскому. Например, согласно SIL, если учитывать только тех, для кого хинди является родным (за вычетом носителей хариани, магахи и других идиомов, рассматриваемых в Индии в качестве диалектов хинди), то он окажется на 5-м месте в мире после китайского, арабского, испанского и английского языков. Кроме того, на оценку общего количества говорящих влияет включение или исключение носителей урду, включение или исключение тех, для кого хинди является вторым языком. Ниже приводятся данные из различных источников.

Источник	Оценка числа носителей, для которых хинди является родным	Оценка числа тех, для кого хинди является вторым языком
SIL	181 676 620 (1991) [10]	120 000 000 (1997)
Census of India (2001) (Перепись в Индии)	422 048 642 (собственно хинди — 257 919 635 человек) [11] (вместе с бходжпури, чхаттисгархи, магахи и другими идиомами, которые рассматривались как диалекты хинди)

На 2001 год число носителей диалектов хинди составляло 422 миллиона человек, то есть 41 % населения Индии^[12].

Диалекты

Ситуация с определением диалектов очень сложна. В современной Индии существует тенденция относить к хинди все локальные индоарийские идиомы в штатах Уттар-Прадеш, Мадхья-Прадеш, Бихар, Хариана, Химачал-Прадеш. Некоторые исследователи относят к ним раджастхани и языки пахари (кроме непальского)^[13].

Обычно все диалекты собственно хинди делят на две группы:

• Западный хинди (кхари боли, урду / дакхни / рехта, базарный хиндустани, литературный хинди, бундели, канауджи, брадж бхакха, хариани.
• Восточный хинди (авадхи, багхели, чхаттисгархи)^[14].

Необходимо отметить, что эта классификация, возможно, несколько устарела в связи с тем, что чхаттисгархи приобрёл статус официального в штате Чхаттисгарх (2000).

Особого упоминания заслуживают диалекты Бихара, которые разные исследователи либо включают, либо исключают из хиндиязыного языкового ареала. Например, Дж. Грирсон и А. Хёрнле исключали из хинди диалекты к востоку от Аллахабада до Бенгала, устанавливая особый язык бихари. Вопрос об отнесении бихарских языков бходжпури, магахи и майтхили к хинди в советской индологии решался неоднозначно. Отечественный исследователь В. А. Чернышев считал их самостоятельными языками. Б. И. Клюев полагал, что «по всей вероятности, эти районы в настоящее время уже не могут быть включены в область собственно хинди». Согласно П. А. Баранникову,

… нельзя согласиться с суждением о том, что территория штата Бихар не относится к хиндиязычному ареалу^[15].

Вместе с тем, П. А. Баранников подчёркивал, что

сам язык хинди представляет собой весьма сложное целое, для которого характерна вариативность.

В настоящее время майтхили официально получил статус официального языка в штате Бихар и Непале.

По мнению Г. А. Зографа, языки пахари и диалекты раджастхани следует считать самостоятельными несмотря на влияние, оказываемое на них хинди^[16]. В частности, один из языков пахари, догри, стал официальным в штате Джамму и Кашмир (2003).

Особняком стоит возникший недавно в результате смешения разных диалектов фиджийский хинди.

История хинди

Хинди развился из пракрита шаурасени^[17]. Общепринятой точки зрения насчёт времени возникновения хинди не существует. Скорее всего, он возник в виде локальных диалектов (таких, как брадж (язык), авадхи и, наконец, кхари-боли не раньше XI века. В эпоху существования Делийского султаната и Империи Великих Моголов, в которых использовался в качестве официального персидский язык, кхари-боли вобрал в себя много персидских и арабских слов. Что касается последних, то, так как почти все они заимствовались через персидский, их форма в хинди-урду не сохранила фонетический облик арабских оригиналов.

Лингвистическая характеристика

Общий характер языка хинди одинаков с другими новоиндийскими языками. В фонетическом отношении его отличительная черта — исчезновение целого ряда конечных согласных и гласных, в морфологии — исчезнование синтетического склонения и спряжения, в лексике — обилие персидских и арабских слов.

Фонетика и фонология

Морфология

Письменность

В письме употребляется обыкновенный индийский алфавит деванагари, применяемый для религиозных книг; светская его разновидность называется просто нагари. Скорописная форма последнего, употребляемая писцами, называется каястхи, или кайтхи; дальнейшее его видоизменение, принятое торговым классом, носит название сурафи, или магаджани. Рядом с ними у индийских мусульман может использоваться арабское письмо.

Литература на хинди

Библиография

Работы общего содержания

• Зограф Г. А. Хиндустани на рубеже ХVIII и ХIХ вв. — М.: Издательство восточной литературы, 1961. — 134 с.
• Катенина Т. Е. Язык хинди. — М.: Издательство восточной литературы, 1960. — 102 с. — (Языки зарубежного Востока и Африки).
• Баранников П. А. Проблемы хинди как национального языка. Л., 1972. — 187 с.

Учебники

• Баранников А. П. Хиндустани (Урду и Хинди). — Л.: Издание Ленинградского Восточного института имени А.С.Енукидзе, 1934.
• Ульциферов О. Г. Учебник языка хинди. Первый год обучения. — М.: АСТ, Восток-Запад, 2007.
• Лазарева Н. Н. Самоучитель языка хинди. — ООО, Восток-Запад, 2008.

Грамматики

• Гуру К. Грамматика хинди. В двух томах. — М.: Издательство иностранной литературы, 1957.
• Дымшиц З. М. Грамматика языка хинди. В двух книгах. — М.: Наука, 1986.
• Захарьин Б. А. Теоретическая грамматика языков хинди и урду. Фонология, морфология глагола, синтаксис главных членов предложения. — М.: ЛКИ (УРСС), 2008.

Словари

• Бархударов А.С., Бескровный В.М., Зограф Г.А., Липеровский В.П. Хинди-русский словарь в двух томах. Около 75000 слов / Под ред. В. М. Бескровного. — М.: Советская Энциклопедия, 1972. — 907+912 с.
• Ульциферов О. Г. Современный русско-хинди словарь. — М.: Русский язык — Медиа, 2004. — 1170 с. — ISBN 5-9576-0105-5
• Ульциферов О. Г. Современный хинди-русский словарь. — М.: Русский язык — Медиа, 2009. — 1354 с. — ISBN 978-5-9576-0421-1

Примечания

См. также

• Фиджийский хинди

Ссылки

• Словарь хинди
• Хинди-русский и русско-хинди словарь | हिंदी रूसी और रूसी हिंदी शब्दकोश
• Хинди говорят дерево
• Англо-хинди-русский словарь
• Удобный англо-хинди словарь с транслитерацией и примерами
• Уроки хинди на Интернет Полиглоте
• Виртуальная клавиатура для набора текстов на хинди
• Правительство Индии предпринимает усилия по продвижению хинди на роль одного из официальных языков ООН

Официальные языки Индии
На федеральном уровне	английский · хинди
На уровне штатов	ассамский · бенгальский · бодо · догри · гуджарати · каннада · кашмири · конкани · майтхили · малаялам · манипури · маратхи · непали · ория · панджаби · санскрит · сантали · синдхи · тамильский · телугу · хинди · урду · раджастхани

Hindustani
Hindi–Urdu
हिन्दुस्तानी ہندوستانی
The word Hindustani in the Devanagari and Perso-Arabic (Nastaliq) scripts
Pronunciation	IPA: [ɦɪn̪d̪ʊst̪äːniː]
Native to	India and Pakistan
Region	Hindustani Belt (North India), Deccan, Pakistan
Native speakers	c. 250 million (2011 & 2017 censuses)[1] L2 speakers: ~500 million (1999–2016)[1]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Central Zone Western Hindi Hindustani
Early forms	Shauraseni Prakrit Apabhraṃśa Old Hindi
Standard forms	Hindi Urdu
Dialects	Deccani Hyderabadi Dhakaiya Rekhta Kauravi Bambaiya Bihari Hindi[a] Andaman Haflong Judeo-Urdu
Writing system	Devanagari (Hindi)[2][3] Perso-Arabic (Urdu alphabet) (Urdu)[2][3] Latin-Roman (Hinglish-Urdish) Kaithi (historical) Hebrew (Judeo-Urdu) Laṇḍā (historical)[4] Mahajani (historical, mainly Hindi) Hindi Braille Urdu Braille
Signed forms	Indian Signing System (ISS)[5]
Official status
Official language in	India (as Hindi and Urdu)  Pakistan (as Urdu)
Regulated by	Central Hindi Directorate (Hindi, India)[6] National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language (Urdu, India)[7] National Language Promotion Department (Urdu, Pakistan)[8]
Language codes
ISO 639-1	hi – Hindi ur – Urdu
ISO 639-2	hin – Hindi urd – Urdu
ISO 639-3	Either: hin – Hindi urd – Urdu
Glottolog	hind1270
Linguasphere	59-AAF-qa to -qf
Areas (red) where Hindustani (Delhlavi or Kauravi) is the native language

Hindustani (; Devanagari: हिन्दुस्तानी,^[9][b] Hindustānī; Perso-Arabic:^[c] ہندوستانی, Hindūstānī, lit. ‘of Hindustan’)^[10][2][3] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Northern and Central India and Pakistan, and used as a lingua franca in both countries.^[11][12] Hindustani is a pluricentric language with two standard registers, known as Hindi and Urdu. Thus, it is also called Hindi–Urdu.^[13][14][15] Colloquial registers of the language fall on a spectrum between these standards.^[16][17]

The concept of a Hindustani language as a «unifying language» or «fusion language» was endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi.^[18] The conversion from Hindi to Urdu (or vice versa) is generally achieved just by transliteration between the two scripts, instead of translation which is generally only required for religious and literary texts.^[19]

Some scholars trace the language’s first written poetry, in the form of Old Hindi, to as early as 769 AD.^[20] However this view is not generally accepted.^[21][22][23] During the period of the Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today’s India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh^[24] and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.^{[25][26][27][28][29][30]} The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement,^[31][32] and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,^[33] which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs.^[34][35]

The language’s core vocabulary is derived from Prakrit (a descendant of Sanskrit),^{[17][20][36][37]} with substantial loanwords from Persian and Arabic (via Persian).^{[38][39][20][40]}

As of 2020, Hindi and Urdu together constitute the 3rd-most-spoken language in the world after English and Mandarin, with 810 million native and second-language speakers, according to Ethnologue,^[41] though this includes millions who self-reported their language as ‘Hindi’ on the Indian census but speak a number of other Hindi languages than Hindustani.^[42] The total number of Hindi–Urdu speakers was reported to be over 300 million in 1995, making Hindustani the third- or fourth-most spoken language in the world.^[43][20]

History

Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries, chiefly the Dehlavi dialect of the Western Hindi category of Indo-Aryan languages that is known as Old Hindi.^[44][29] Hindustani emerged as a contact language around Delhi, a result of the increasing linguistic diversity that occurred due to Muslim rule, while the use of its southern dialect, Dakhani, was promoted by Muslim rulers in the Deccan.^[45][46] Amir Khusrow, who lived in the thirteenth century during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used these forms (which was the lingua franca of the period) in his writings and referred to it as Hindavi (Persian: ھندوی, lit. ‘of Hind or India‘).^[47][30] The Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several Turkic and Afghan dynasties that ruled much of the subcontinent from Delhi,^[48] was succeeded by the Mughal Empire in 1526.

Ancestors of the language were known as Hindui, Hindavi, Zabān-e Hind (transl. ’Language of India’), Zabān-e Hindustan (transl. ’Language of Hindustan’), Hindustan ki boli (transl. ’Language of Hindustan’), Rekhta, and Hindi.^[11][49] Its regional dialects became known as Zabān-e Dakhani in southern India, Zabān-e Gujari (transl. ’Language of Gujars’) in Gujarat, and as Zabān-e Dehlavi or Urdu around Delhi. It is an Indo-Aryan language, deriving its base primarily from the Western Hindi dialect of Delhi, also known as Khariboli.^[50]

Although the Mughals were of Timurid (Gurkānī) Turco-Mongol descent,^[51] they were Persianised, and Persian had gradually become the state language of the Mughal empire after Babur,^{[52][53][54][55]} a continuation since the introduction of Persian by Central Asian Turkic rulers in the Indian Subcontinent,^[56] and the patronisation of it by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianised Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.^[57]

Hindustani began to take shape as a Persianised vernacular during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD) and Mughal Empire (1526–1858 AD) in South Asia.^[58] Hindustani retained the grammar and core vocabulary of the local Delhi dialect.^[58][59] However, as an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic loanwords, and as Mughal conquests grew it spread as a lingua franca across much of northern India; this was a result of the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures in Hindustan that created a composite Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb.^{[27][25][28][60]} The language was also known as Rekhta, or ‘mixed’, which implies that it was mixed with Persian.^[61][62] Written in the Perso-Arabic, Devanagari,^[63] and occasionally Kaithi or Gurmukhi scripts,^[64] it remained the primary lingua franca of northern India for the next four centuries, although it varied significantly in vocabulary depending on the local language. Alongside Persian, it achieved the status of a literary language in Muslim courts and was also used for literary purposes in various other settings such as Sufi, Nirgun Sant, Krishna Bhakta circles, and Rajput Hindu courts. Its majors centres of development included the Mughal courts of Delhi, Lucknow, Agra and Lahore as well as the Rajput courts of Amber and Jaipur.^[65]

In the 18th century, towards the end of the Mughal period, with the fragmentation of the empire and the elite system, a variant of Hindustani, one of the successors of apabhraṃśa vernaculars at Delhi, and nearby cities, came to gradually replace Persian as the lingua franca among the educated elite upper class particularly in northern India, though Persian still retained much of its pre-eminence for a short period. The term Hindustani was given to that language.^[66] The Perso-Arabic script form of this language underwent a standardisation process and further Persianisation during this period (18th century) and came to be known as Urdu, a name derived from Persian: Zabān-e Urdū-e Mualla (‘language of the court’) or Zabān-e Urdū (زبان اردو, ‘language of the camp’). The etymology of the word Urdu is of Chagatai origin, Ordū (‘camp’), cognate with English horde, and known in local translation as Lashkari Zabān (لشکری زبان),^[67] which is shorted to Lashkari (لشکری).^[68] This is all due to its origin as the common speech of the Mughal army. As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. Along with English, it became the first official language of British India in 1850.^[69][70]

Hindi as a standardised literary register of the Delhi dialect arose in the 19th century; the Braj dialect was the dominant literary language in the Devanagari script up until and through the 19th century. While the first literary works (mostly translations of earlier works) in Sanskritised Hindustani were already written in the early 19th century as part of a literary project that included both Hindu and Muslim writers (e.g. Lallu Lal, Insha Allah Khan), the call for a distinct Sanskritised standard of the Delhi dialect written in Devanagari under the name of Hindi became increasingly politicised in the course of the century and gained pace around 1880 in an effort to displace Urdu’s official position.^[71]

John Fletcher Hurst in his book published in 1891 mentioned that the Hindustani or camp language of the Mughal Empire’s courts at Delhi was not regarded by philologists as a distinct language but only as a dialect of Hindi with admixture of Persian. He continued: «But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language. It is linguistic result of Muslim rule of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken (except in rural Bengal) by many Hindus in North India and by Musalman population in all parts of India.» Next to English it was the official language of British Raj, was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters, and was spoken by approximately 100,000,000 people.^[72] The process of hybridization also led to the formation of words in which the first element of the compound was from Khari Boli and the second from Persian, such as rajmahal ‘palace’ (raja ‘royal, king’ + mahal ‘house, place’) and rangmahal ‘fashion house’ (rang ‘colour, dye’ + mahal ‘house, place’).^[73] As Muslim rule expanded, Hindustani speakers traveled to distant parts of India as administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. As it reached new areas, Hindustani further hybridized with local languages. In the Deccan, for instance, Hindustani blended with Telugu and came to be called Dakhani. In Dakhani, aspirated consonants were replaced with their unaspirated counterparts; for instance, dekh ‘see’ became dek, ghula ‘dissolved’ became gula, kuch ‘some’ became kuc, and samajh ‘understand’ became samaj.^[74]

When the British colonised the Indian subcontinent from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words ‘Hindustani’, ‘Hindi’, and ‘Urdu’ interchangeably. They developed it as the language of administration of British India,^[75] further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word ‘Hindustani’ declined, being largely replaced by ‘Hindi’ and ‘Urdu’, or ‘Hindi-Urdu’ when either of those was too specific. More recently, the word ‘Hindustani’ has been used for the colloquial language of Bollywood films, which are popular in both India and Pakistan and which cannot be unambiguously identified as either Hindi or Urdu.

Registers

Although, at the spoken level, Hindi and Urdu are considered registers of a single language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu, as they share a common grammar and core vocabulary,^{[16][17][76][36][20]} they differ in literary and formal vocabulary; where literary Hindi draws heavily on Sanskrit and to a lesser extent Prakrit, literary Urdu draws heavily on Persian and Arabic loanwords.^[77] The grammar and base vocabulary (most pronouns, verbs, adpositions, etc.) of both Hindi and Urdu, however, are the same and derive from a Prakritic base, and both have Persian/Arabic influence.^[76]

The standardised registers Hindi and Urdu are collectively known as Hindi-Urdu.^[10] Hindustani is the lingua franca of the north and west of the Indian subcontinent, though it is understood fairly well in other regions also, especially in the urban areas.^[11] This has led it to be characterised as a continuum that ranges between Hindi and Urdu.^[78] A common vernacular sharing characteristics with Sanskritised Hindi, regional Hindi and Urdu, Hindustani is more commonly used as a vernacular than highly Sanskritised Hindi or highly Persianised Urdu.^[33]

This can be seen in the popular culture of Bollywood or, more generally, the vernacular of North Indians and Pakistanis, which generally employs a lexicon common to both Hindi and Urdu speakers.^[35] Minor subtleties in region will also affect the ‘brand’ of Hindustani, sometimes pushing the Hindustani closer to Urdu or to Hindi. One might reasonably assume that the Hindustani spoken in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (known for its usage of Urdu) and Varanasi (a holy city for Hindus and thus using highly Sanskritised Hindi) is somewhat different.^[10]

Modern Standard Hindi

Standard Hindi, one of the 22 officially recognized languages of India and the official language of the Union, is usually written in the indigenous Devanagari script of India and exhibits less Persian and Arabic influence than Urdu. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry, religion and philosophy. One could conceive of a wide spectrum of dialects and registers, with the highly Persianised Urdu at one end of the spectrum and a heavily Sanskritised variety spoken in the region around Varanasi, at the other end. In common usage in India, the term Hindi includes all these dialects except those at the Urdu spectrum. Thus, the different meanings of the word Hindi include, among others:^{[citation needed]}

1. standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India (except some states such as Tamil Nadu),
2. formal or official Hindi advocated by Purushottam Das Tandon and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit,
3. the vernacular dialects of Hindustani as spoken throughout India,
4. the neutralized form of Hindustani used in popular television and films (which is nearly identical to colloquial Urdu), or
5. the more formal neutralized form of Hindustani used in television and print news reports.

Modern Standard Urdu

Main article: Urdu

Urdu is the national language and state language of Pakistan and one of the 22 officially recognised languages of India.
It is written, except in some parts of India, in the Nastaliq style of the Urdu alphabet, an extended Perso-Arabic script incorporating Indic phonemes. It is heavily influenced by Persian vocabulary and was historically also known as Rekhta.

As Dakhini (or Deccani) where it also draws words from local languages, it survives and enjoys a rich history in the Deccan and other parts of South India, with the prestige dialect being Hyderabadi Urdu spoken in and around the capital of the Nizams and the Deccan Sultanates.

Earliest forms of the language’s literature may be traced back to the 13th-14th century works of Amīr Khusrau Dehlavī, often called the «father of Urdu literature» while Walī Deccani is seen as the progenitor of Urdu poetry.

Bazaar Hindustani

The term bazaar Hindustani, in other words, the ‘street talk’ or literally ‘marketplace Hindustani’, has arisen to denote a colloquial register of the language that uses vocabulary common to both Hindi and Urdu while eschewing high-register and specialized Arabic or Sanskrit derived words.^[79] It has emerged in various South Asian cities where Hindustani is not the main language, in order to facilitate communication across language barriers. It is characterized by loanwords from local languages.^[80]

Names

Amir Khusro c. 1300 referred to this language of his writings as Dehlavi (देहलवी / دہلوی, ‘of Delhi’) or Hindavi (हिन्दवी / ہندوی). During this period, Hindustani was used by Sufis in promulgating their message across the Indian subcontinent.^{[citation needed]} After the advent of the Mughals in the subcontinent, Hindustani acquired more Persian loanwords. Rekhta (‘mixture’), Hindi (‘Indian’), Hindustani, Hindvi, Lahori, and Dakni (amongst others) became popular names for the same language until the 18th century.^[63][81] The name Urdu (from Zabān-i-Ordu, or Orda) appeared around 1780.^[81] It is believed to have been coined by the poet Mashafi.^[82] In local literature and speech, it was also known as the Lashkari Zabān (military language) or Lashkari.^[83] Mashafi was the first person to simply modify the name Zabān-i-Ordu to Urdu.^[84]

During the British Raj, the term Hindustani was used by British officials.^[81] In 1796, John Borthwick Gilchrist published a «A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language».^[81][85] Upon partition, India and Pakistan established national standards that they called Hindi and Urdu, respectively, and attempted to make distinct, with the result that Hindustani commonly, but mistakenly, came to be seen as a «mixture» of Hindi and Urdu.

Grierson, in his highly influential Linguistic Survey of India, proposed that the names Hindustani, Urdu, and Hindi be separated in use for different varieties of the Hindustani language, rather than as the overlapping synonyms they frequently were:

We may now define the three main varieties of Hindōstānī as follows:—Hindōstānī is primarily the language of the Upper Gangetic Doab, and is also the lingua franca of India, capable of being written in both Persian and Dēva-nāgarī characters, and without purism, avoiding alike the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name ‘Urdū’ can then be confined to that special variety of Hindōstānī in which Persian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in the Persian character, and, similarly, ‘Hindī’ can be confined to the form of Hindōstānī in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be written in the Dēva-nāgarī character.^[2]

Literature

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2022)

Official status

Prior to 1947, Hindustani was officially recognised by the British Raj. In the post-independence period however, the term Hindustani has lost currency and is not given any official recognition by the Indian or Pakistani governments. The language is instead recognised by its standard forms, Hindi and Urdu.^[86]

Hindi

Hindi is declared by Article 343(1), Part 17 of the Indian Constitution as the «official language (राजभाषा, rājabhāṣā) of the Union.» (In this context, «Union» means the Federal Government and not the entire country^{[citation needed]}—India has 23 official languages.) At the same time, however, the definitive text of federal laws is officially the English text and proceedings in the higher appellate courts must be conducted in English.

At the state level, Hindi is one of the official languages in 10 of the 29 Indian states and three Union Territories, respectively: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Delhi.

In the remaining states, Hindi is not an official language. In states like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, studying Hindi is not compulsory in the state curriculum. However, an option to take the same as second or third language does exist. In many other states, studying Hindi is usually compulsory in the school curriculum as a third language (the first two languages being the state’s official language and English), though the intensiveness of Hindi in the curriculum varies.^[87]

Urdu

Urdu is the national language (قومی زبان, qaumi zabān) of Pakistan, where it shares official language status with English. Although English is spoken by many, and Punjabi is the native language of the majority of the population, Urdu is the lingua franca. In India, Urdu is one of the languages recognised in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and is an official language of the Indian states of Bihar, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and also the Union Territories of Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir. Although the government school system in most other states emphasises Modern Standard Hindi, at universities in cities such as Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad, Urdu is spoken and learnt, and Saaf or Khaalis Urdu is treated with just as much respect as Shuddha Hindi.

Geographical distribution

Besides being the lingua franca of North India and Pakistan in South Asia,^[11][33] Hindustani is also spoken by many in the South Asian diaspora and their descendants around the world, including North America (e.g., in Canada, Hindustani is one of the fastest growing languages),^[88] Europe, and the Middle East.

• A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films and songs in the region, as well as the fact that many Afghan refugees spent time in Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s.^[89][90]
• Fiji Hindi was derived from the Hindustani linguistic group and is spoken widely by Fijians of Indian origin.
• Hindustani was also one of the languages that was spoken widely during British rule in Burma. Many older citizens of Myanmar, particularly Anglo-Indians and the Anglo-Burmese, still know it, although it has had no official status in the country since military rule began.
• Hindustani is also spoken in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, where migrant workers from various countries live and work for several years.

Phonology

Grammar

Vocabulary

Hindi-Urdu’s core vocabulary has an Indic base, being derived from Prakrit, which in turn derives from Sanskrit,^{[20][17][36][37]} as well as a substantial amount of loanwords from Persian and Arabic (via Persian).^[77][38] Hindustani contains around 5,500 words of Persian and Arabic origin.^[91]

Hindustani also borrowed Persian prefixes to create new words. Persian affixes became so assimilated that they were used with original Khari Boli words as well.

Writing system

Historically, Hindustani was written in the Kaithi, Devanagari, and Urdu alphabets.^[63] Kaithi and Devanagari are two of the Brahmic scripts native to India, whereas the Urdu alphabet is a derivation of the Perso-Arabic script written in Nastaʿlīq, which is the preferred calligraphic style for Urdu.

Today, Hindustani continues to be written in the Urdu alphabet in Pakistan. In India, the Hindi register is officially written in Devanagari, and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet, to the extent that these standards are partly defined by their script.

However, in popular publications in India, Urdu is also written in Devanagari, with slight variations to establish a Devanagari Urdu alphabet alongside the Devanagari Hindi alphabet.

Devanagari

अ	आ	इ	ई	उ	ऊ	ए	ऐ	ओ	औ
ə	aː	ɪ	iː	ʊ	uː	eː	ɛː	oː	ɔː
क	क़	ख	ख़	ग	ग़	घ	ङ
k	q	kʰ	x	ɡ	ɣ	ɡʱ	ŋ
च	छ	ज	ज़	झ	झ़	ञ
t͡ʃ	t͡ʃʰ	d͡ʒ	z	d͡ʒʱ	ʒ	ɲ[92]
ट	ठ	ड	ड़	ढ	ढ़	ण
ʈ	ʈʰ	ɖ	ɽ	ɖʱ	ɽʱ	ɳ
त	थ	द	ध	न
t	tʰ	d	dʱ	n
प	फ	फ़	ब	भ	म
p	pʰ	f	b	bʱ	m
य	र	ल	व	श	ष	स	ह
j	ɾ	l	ʋ	ʃ	ʂ	s	ɦ

Urdu alphabet

Letter	Name of letter	Transliteration	IPA
ا	alif	a, ā, i, or u	/ə/, /aː/, /ɪ/, or /ʊ/
ب	be	b	/b/
پ	pe	p	/p/
ت	te	t	/t/
ٹ	ṭe	ṭ	/ʈ/
ث	se	s	/s/
ج	jīm	j	/d͡ʒ/
چ	che	c	/t͡ʃ/
ح	baṛī he	h̤	/h ~ ɦ/
خ	khe	k͟h	/x/
د	dāl	d	/d/
ڈ	ḍāl	ḍ	/ɖ/
ذ	zāl	z	/z/
ر	re	r	/r ~ ɾ/
ڑ	ṛe	ṛ	/ɽ/
ز	ze	z	/z/
ژ	zhe	ž	/ʒ/
س	sīn	s	/s/
ش	shīn	sh	/ʃ/
ص	su’ād	s̤	/s/
ض	zu’ād	ż	/z/
ط	to’e	t̤	/t/
ظ	zo’e	ẓ	/z/
ع	‘ain	‘	–
غ	ghain	ġ	/ɣ/
ف	fe	f	/f/
ق	qāf	q	/q/
ک	kāf	k	/k/
گ	gāf	g	/ɡ/
ل	lām	l	/l/
م	mīm	m	/m/
ن	nūn	n	/n/
ں	nūn ghunna	ṁ or m̐	/◌̃/
و	wā’o	w, v, ō, or ū	/ʋ/, /oː/, /ɔ/ or /uː/
ہ	choṭī he	h	/h ~ ɦ/
ھ	do chashmī he	h	/ʰ/ or /ʱ/
ء	hamza	‘	/ʔ/
ی	ye	y or ī	/j/ or /iː/
ے	baṛī ye	ai or ē	/ɛː/, or /eː/

Because of anglicisation in South Asia and the international use of the Latin script, Hindustani is occasionally written in the Latin script. This adaptation is called Roman Urdu or Romanised Hindi, depending upon the register used. Since Urdu and Hindi are mutually intelligible when spoken, Romanised Hindi and Roman Urdu (unlike Devanagari Hindi and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet) are mostly mutually intelligible as well.

Sample text

Colloquial Hindustani

An example of colloquial Hindustani:^[20]

• Devanagari: यह कितने का है?
• Urdu: یہ کتنے کا ہے؟
• Romanisation: Yah kitnē kā hai?
• English: How much is this?

The following is a sample text, Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in the two official registers of Hindustani, Hindi and Urdu. Because this is a formal legal text, differences in vocabulary are most pronounced.

Literary Hindi

अनुच्छेद १ — सभी मनुष्यों को गौरव और अधिकारों के विषय में जन्मजात स्वतन्त्रता और समानता प्राप्त हैं। उन्हें बुद्धि और अन्तरात्मा की देन प्राप्त है और परस्पर उन्हें भाईचारे के भाव से बर्ताव करना चाहिए।^[93]

Urdu transliteration
انُچھید ١ : سبھی منُشیوں کو گورو اور ادھکاروں کے وِشئے میں جنمجات سوَتنتْرتا پراپت ہیں۔ اُنہیں بدھی اور انتراتما کی دین پراپت ہے اور پرسپر اُنہیں بھائی چارے کے بھاؤ سے برتاؤ کرنا چاہئے۔
Transliteration (ISO 15919)
Anucchēd 1: Sabhī manuṣyō̃ kō gaurav aur adhikārō̃ kē viṣay mē̃ janmajāt svatantratā aur samāntā prāpt haĩ. Unhē̃ buddhi aur antarātmā kī dēn prāpt hai aur paraspar unhē̃ bhāīcārē kē bhāv sē bartāv karnā cāhiē.
Transcription (IPA)
səbʰiː mənʊʂjõː koː ɡɔːɾəʋ ɔːɾ ədʰɪkɑːɾõː keː ʋɪʂəj mẽː dʒənmədʒɑːt sʋətəntɾətɑː ɔːɾ səmɑːntɑː pɾɑːpt ɦɛ̃ː ‖ ʊnʰẽː bʊdːʰɪ ɔːɾ əntəɾɑːtmɑː kiː deːn pɾɑːpt ɦɛː ɔːɾ pəɾəspəɾ ʊnʰẽː bʰɑːiːtʃɑːɾeː keː bʰɑːʋ seː bəɾtɑːʋ kəɾnɑː tʃɑːɦɪeː ‖]
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1—All human-beings to dignity and rights’ matter in from-birth freedom acquired is. Them to reason and conscience’s endowment acquired is and always them to brotherhood’s spirit with behaviour to do should.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Literary Urdu

:دفعہ ١: تمام اِنسان آزاد اور حُقوق و عِزت کے اعتبار سے برابر پَیدا ہُوئے ہَیں۔ انہیں ضمِیر اور عقل ودِیعت ہوئی ہَیں۔ اِس لئے انہیں ایک دُوسرے کے ساتھ بھائی چارے کا سُلُوک کرنا چاہئے۔

Devanagari transliteration
दफ़ा १ — तमाम इनसान आज़ाद और हुक़ूक़ ओ इज़्ज़त के ऐतबार से बराबर पैदा हुए हैं। उन्हें ज़मीर और अक़्ल वदीयत हुई हैं। इसलिए उन्हें एक दूसरे के साथ भाई चारे का सुलूक करना चाहीए।
Transliteration (ISO 15919)
Dafʻah 1: Tamām insān āzād aur ḥuqūq ō ʻizzat kē iʻtibār sē barābar paidā hu’ē haĩ. Unhē̃ żamīr aur ʻaql wadīʻat hu’ī haĩ. Isli’ē unhē̃ ēk dūsrē kē sāth bhā’ī cārē kā sulūk karnā cāhi’ē.
Transcription (IPA)
dəfaː eːk təmaːm ɪnsaːn aːzaːd ɔːɾ hʊquːq oː izːət keː ɛːtəbaːɾ seː bəɾaːbəɾ pɛːdaː hʊeː hɛ̃ː ʊnʱẽː zəmiːɾ ɔːɾ əql ʋədiːət hʊiː hɛ̃ː ɪs lɪeː ʊnʱẽː eːk duːsɾeː keː saːtʰ bʱaːiː tʃaːɾeː kaː sʊluːk kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1: All humans free[,] and rights and dignity’s consideration from equal born are. To them conscience and intellect endowed is. Therefore, they one another’s with brotherhood’s treatment do must.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Hindustani and Bollywood

The predominant Indian film industry Bollywood, located in Mumbai, Maharashtra uses Modern Standard Hindi, colloquial Hindustani, Bombay Hindi, Urdu,^[94] Awadhi, Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, and Braj Bhasha, along with Punjabi and with the liberal use of English or Hinglish in scripts and soundtrack lyrics.

Film titles are often screened in three scripts: Latin, Devanagari and occasionally Perso-Arabic. The use of Urdu or Hindi in films depends on the film’s context: historical films set in the Delhi Sultanate or Mughal Empire are almost entirely in Urdu, whereas films based on Hindu mythology or ancient India make heavy use of Hindi with Sanskrit vocabulary.

See also

• Hindustan (Indian subcontinent)
• Languages of India
• Languages of Pakistan
• List of Hindi authors
• List of Urdu writers
• Hindi–Urdu transliteration
• Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

• Bolti Dictionary (Hindustani)
• Hamari Boli (Hindustani)
• Khan Academy (Hindi-Urdu): academic lessons taught in Hindi-Urdu
• Hindustani as an anxiety between Hindi–Urdu Commitment
• Hindi? Urdu? Hindustani? Hindi-Urdu?
• Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Comparative Word List
• GRN Report for Hindustani
• Hindustani Poetry
• Hindustani online resources
• National Language Authority (Urdu), Pakistan (muqtadera qaumi zaban)

Hindustani
Hindi–Urdu
हिन्दुस्तानी ہندوستانی
The word Hindustani in the Devanagari and Perso-Arabic (Nastaliq) scripts
Pronunciation	IPA: [ɦɪn̪d̪ʊst̪äːniː]
Native to	India and Pakistan
Region	Hindustani Belt (North India), Deccan, Pakistan
Native speakers	c. 250 million (2011 & 2017 censuses)[1] L2 speakers: ~500 million (1999–2016)[1]
Language family	Indo-European Indo-Iranian Indo-Aryan Central Zone Western Hindi Hindustani
Early forms	Shauraseni Prakrit Apabhraṃśa Old Hindi
Standard forms	Hindi Urdu
Dialects	Deccani Hyderabadi Dhakaiya Rekhta Kauravi Bambaiya Bihari Hindi[a] Andaman Haflong Judeo-Urdu
Writing system	Devanagari (Hindi)[2][3] Perso-Arabic (Urdu alphabet) (Urdu)[2][3] Latin-Roman (Hinglish-Urdish) Kaithi (historical) Hebrew (Judeo-Urdu) Laṇḍā (historical)[4] Mahajani (historical, mainly Hindi) Hindi Braille Urdu Braille
Signed forms	Indian Signing System (ISS)[5]
Official status
Official language in	India (as Hindi and Urdu)  Pakistan (as Urdu)
Regulated by	Central Hindi Directorate (Hindi, India)[6] National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language (Urdu, India)[7] National Language Promotion Department (Urdu, Pakistan)[8]
Language codes
ISO 639-1	hi – Hindi ur – Urdu
ISO 639-2	hin – Hindi urd – Urdu
ISO 639-3	Either: hin – Hindi urd – Urdu
Glottolog	hind1270
Linguasphere	59-AAF-qa to -qf
Areas (red) where Hindustani (Delhlavi or Kauravi) is the native language

Hindustani (; Devanagari: हिन्दुस्तानी,^[9][b] Hindustānī; Perso-Arabic:^[c] ہندوستانی, Hindūstānī, lit. ‘of Hindustan’)^[10][2][3] is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in Northern and Central India and Pakistan, and used as a lingua franca in both countries.^[11][12] Hindustani is a pluricentric language with two standard registers, known as Hindi and Urdu. Thus, it is also called Hindi–Urdu.^[13][14][15] Colloquial registers of the language fall on a spectrum between these standards.^[16][17]

The concept of a Hindustani language as a «unifying language» or «fusion language» was endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi.^[18] The conversion from Hindi to Urdu (or vice versa) is generally achieved just by transliteration between the two scripts, instead of translation which is generally only required for religious and literary texts.^[19]

Some scholars trace the language’s first written poetry, in the form of Old Hindi, to as early as 769 AD.^[20] However this view is not generally accepted.^[21][22][23] During the period of the Delhi Sultanate, which covered most of today’s India, eastern Pakistan, southern Nepal and Bangladesh^[24] and which resulted in the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures, the Sanskrit and Prakrit base of Old Hindi became enriched with loanwords from Persian, evolving into the present form of Hindustani.^{[25][26][27][28][29][30]} The Hindustani vernacular became an expression of Indian national unity during the Indian Independence movement,^[31][32] and continues to be spoken as the common language of the people of the northern Indian subcontinent,^[33] which is reflected in the Hindustani vocabulary of Bollywood films and songs.^[34][35]

The language’s core vocabulary is derived from Prakrit (a descendant of Sanskrit),^{[17][20][36][37]} with substantial loanwords from Persian and Arabic (via Persian).^{[38][39][20][40]}

As of 2020, Hindi and Urdu together constitute the 3rd-most-spoken language in the world after English and Mandarin, with 810 million native and second-language speakers, according to Ethnologue,^[41] though this includes millions who self-reported their language as ‘Hindi’ on the Indian census but speak a number of other Hindi languages than Hindustani.^[42] The total number of Hindi–Urdu speakers was reported to be over 300 million in 1995, making Hindustani the third- or fourth-most spoken language in the world.^[43][20]

History

Early forms of present-day Hindustani developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhraṃśa vernaculars of present-day North India in the 7th–13th centuries, chiefly the Dehlavi dialect of the Western Hindi category of Indo-Aryan languages that is known as Old Hindi.^[44][29] Hindustani emerged as a contact language around Delhi, a result of the increasing linguistic diversity that occurred due to Muslim rule, while the use of its southern dialect, Dakhani, was promoted by Muslim rulers in the Deccan.^[45][46] Amir Khusrow, who lived in the thirteenth century during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used these forms (which was the lingua franca of the period) in his writings and referred to it as Hindavi (Persian: ھندوی, lit. ‘of Hind or India‘).^[47][30] The Delhi Sultanate, which comprised several Turkic and Afghan dynasties that ruled much of the subcontinent from Delhi,^[48] was succeeded by the Mughal Empire in 1526.

Ancestors of the language were known as Hindui, Hindavi, Zabān-e Hind (transl. ’Language of India’), Zabān-e Hindustan (transl. ’Language of Hindustan’), Hindustan ki boli (transl. ’Language of Hindustan’), Rekhta, and Hindi.^[11][49] Its regional dialects became known as Zabān-e Dakhani in southern India, Zabān-e Gujari (transl. ’Language of Gujars’) in Gujarat, and as Zabān-e Dehlavi or Urdu around Delhi. It is an Indo-Aryan language, deriving its base primarily from the Western Hindi dialect of Delhi, also known as Khariboli.^[50]

Although the Mughals were of Timurid (Gurkānī) Turco-Mongol descent,^[51] they were Persianised, and Persian had gradually become the state language of the Mughal empire after Babur,^{[52][53][54][55]} a continuation since the introduction of Persian by Central Asian Turkic rulers in the Indian Subcontinent,^[56] and the patronisation of it by the earlier Turko-Afghan Delhi Sultanate. The basis in general for the introduction of Persian into the subcontinent was set, from its earliest days, by various Persianised Central Asian Turkic and Afghan dynasties.^[57]

Hindustani began to take shape as a Persianised vernacular during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 AD) and Mughal Empire (1526–1858 AD) in South Asia.^[58] Hindustani retained the grammar and core vocabulary of the local Delhi dialect.^[58][59] However, as an emerging common dialect, Hindustani absorbed large numbers of Persian, Arabic, and Turkic loanwords, and as Mughal conquests grew it spread as a lingua franca across much of northern India; this was a result of the contact of Hindu and Muslim cultures in Hindustan that created a composite Ganga-Jamuni tehzeeb.^{[27][25][28][60]} The language was also known as Rekhta, or ‘mixed’, which implies that it was mixed with Persian.^[61][62] Written in the Perso-Arabic, Devanagari,^[63] and occasionally Kaithi or Gurmukhi scripts,^[64] it remained the primary lingua franca of northern India for the next four centuries, although it varied significantly in vocabulary depending on the local language. Alongside Persian, it achieved the status of a literary language in Muslim courts and was also used for literary purposes in various other settings such as Sufi, Nirgun Sant, Krishna Bhakta circles, and Rajput Hindu courts. Its majors centres of development included the Mughal courts of Delhi, Lucknow, Agra and Lahore as well as the Rajput courts of Amber and Jaipur.^[65]

In the 18th century, towards the end of the Mughal period, with the fragmentation of the empire and the elite system, a variant of Hindustani, one of the successors of apabhraṃśa vernaculars at Delhi, and nearby cities, came to gradually replace Persian as the lingua franca among the educated elite upper class particularly in northern India, though Persian still retained much of its pre-eminence for a short period. The term Hindustani was given to that language.^[66] The Perso-Arabic script form of this language underwent a standardisation process and further Persianisation during this period (18th century) and came to be known as Urdu, a name derived from Persian: Zabān-e Urdū-e Mualla (‘language of the court’) or Zabān-e Urdū (زبان اردو, ‘language of the camp’). The etymology of the word Urdu is of Chagatai origin, Ordū (‘camp’), cognate with English horde, and known in local translation as Lashkari Zabān (لشکری زبان),^[67] which is shorted to Lashkari (لشکری).^[68] This is all due to its origin as the common speech of the Mughal army. As a literary language, Urdu took shape in courtly, elite settings. Along with English, it became the first official language of British India in 1850.^[69][70]

Hindi as a standardised literary register of the Delhi dialect arose in the 19th century; the Braj dialect was the dominant literary language in the Devanagari script up until and through the 19th century. While the first literary works (mostly translations of earlier works) in Sanskritised Hindustani were already written in the early 19th century as part of a literary project that included both Hindu and Muslim writers (e.g. Lallu Lal, Insha Allah Khan), the call for a distinct Sanskritised standard of the Delhi dialect written in Devanagari under the name of Hindi became increasingly politicised in the course of the century and gained pace around 1880 in an effort to displace Urdu’s official position.^[71]

John Fletcher Hurst in his book published in 1891 mentioned that the Hindustani or camp language of the Mughal Empire’s courts at Delhi was not regarded by philologists as a distinct language but only as a dialect of Hindi with admixture of Persian. He continued: «But it has all the magnitude and importance of separate language. It is linguistic result of Muslim rule of eleventh & twelfth centuries and is spoken (except in rural Bengal) by many Hindus in North India and by Musalman population in all parts of India.» Next to English it was the official language of British Raj, was commonly written in Arabic or Persian characters, and was spoken by approximately 100,000,000 people.^[72] The process of hybridization also led to the formation of words in which the first element of the compound was from Khari Boli and the second from Persian, such as rajmahal ‘palace’ (raja ‘royal, king’ + mahal ‘house, place’) and rangmahal ‘fashion house’ (rang ‘colour, dye’ + mahal ‘house, place’).^[73] As Muslim rule expanded, Hindustani speakers traveled to distant parts of India as administrators, soldiers, merchants, and artisans. As it reached new areas, Hindustani further hybridized with local languages. In the Deccan, for instance, Hindustani blended with Telugu and came to be called Dakhani. In Dakhani, aspirated consonants were replaced with their unaspirated counterparts; for instance, dekh ‘see’ became dek, ghula ‘dissolved’ became gula, kuch ‘some’ became kuc, and samajh ‘understand’ became samaj.^[74]

When the British colonised the Indian subcontinent from the late 18th through to the late 19th century, they used the words ‘Hindustani’, ‘Hindi’, and ‘Urdu’ interchangeably. They developed it as the language of administration of British India,^[75] further preparing it to be the official language of modern India and Pakistan. However, with independence, use of the word ‘Hindustani’ declined, being largely replaced by ‘Hindi’ and ‘Urdu’, or ‘Hindi-Urdu’ when either of those was too specific. More recently, the word ‘Hindustani’ has been used for the colloquial language of Bollywood films, which are popular in both India and Pakistan and which cannot be unambiguously identified as either Hindi or Urdu.

Registers

Although, at the spoken level, Hindi and Urdu are considered registers of a single language, Hindustani or Hindi-Urdu, as they share a common grammar and core vocabulary,^{[16][17][76][36][20]} they differ in literary and formal vocabulary; where literary Hindi draws heavily on Sanskrit and to a lesser extent Prakrit, literary Urdu draws heavily on Persian and Arabic loanwords.^[77] The grammar and base vocabulary (most pronouns, verbs, adpositions, etc.) of both Hindi and Urdu, however, are the same and derive from a Prakritic base, and both have Persian/Arabic influence.^[76]

The standardised registers Hindi and Urdu are collectively known as Hindi-Urdu.^[10] Hindustani is the lingua franca of the north and west of the Indian subcontinent, though it is understood fairly well in other regions also, especially in the urban areas.^[11] This has led it to be characterised as a continuum that ranges between Hindi and Urdu.^[78] A common vernacular sharing characteristics with Sanskritised Hindi, regional Hindi and Urdu, Hindustani is more commonly used as a vernacular than highly Sanskritised Hindi or highly Persianised Urdu.^[33]

This can be seen in the popular culture of Bollywood or, more generally, the vernacular of North Indians and Pakistanis, which generally employs a lexicon common to both Hindi and Urdu speakers.^[35] Minor subtleties in region will also affect the ‘brand’ of Hindustani, sometimes pushing the Hindustani closer to Urdu or to Hindi. One might reasonably assume that the Hindustani spoken in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh (known for its usage of Urdu) and Varanasi (a holy city for Hindus and thus using highly Sanskritised Hindi) is somewhat different.^[10]

Modern Standard Hindi

Standard Hindi, one of the 22 officially recognized languages of India and the official language of the Union, is usually written in the indigenous Devanagari script of India and exhibits less Persian and Arabic influence than Urdu. It has a literature of 500 years, with prose, poetry, religion and philosophy. One could conceive of a wide spectrum of dialects and registers, with the highly Persianised Urdu at one end of the spectrum and a heavily Sanskritised variety spoken in the region around Varanasi, at the other end. In common usage in India, the term Hindi includes all these dialects except those at the Urdu spectrum. Thus, the different meanings of the word Hindi include, among others:^{[citation needed]}

1. standardized Hindi as taught in schools throughout India (except some states such as Tamil Nadu),
2. formal or official Hindi advocated by Purushottam Das Tandon and as instituted by the post-independence Indian government, heavily influenced by Sanskrit,
3. the vernacular dialects of Hindustani as spoken throughout India,
4. the neutralized form of Hindustani used in popular television and films (which is nearly identical to colloquial Urdu), or
5. the more formal neutralized form of Hindustani used in television and print news reports.

Modern Standard Urdu

Main article: Urdu

Urdu is the national language and state language of Pakistan and one of the 22 officially recognised languages of India.
It is written, except in some parts of India, in the Nastaliq style of the Urdu alphabet, an extended Perso-Arabic script incorporating Indic phonemes. It is heavily influenced by Persian vocabulary and was historically also known as Rekhta.

As Dakhini (or Deccani) where it also draws words from local languages, it survives and enjoys a rich history in the Deccan and other parts of South India, with the prestige dialect being Hyderabadi Urdu spoken in and around the capital of the Nizams and the Deccan Sultanates.

Earliest forms of the language’s literature may be traced back to the 13th-14th century works of Amīr Khusrau Dehlavī, often called the «father of Urdu literature» while Walī Deccani is seen as the progenitor of Urdu poetry.

Bazaar Hindustani

The term bazaar Hindustani, in other words, the ‘street talk’ or literally ‘marketplace Hindustani’, has arisen to denote a colloquial register of the language that uses vocabulary common to both Hindi and Urdu while eschewing high-register and specialized Arabic or Sanskrit derived words.^[79] It has emerged in various South Asian cities where Hindustani is not the main language, in order to facilitate communication across language barriers. It is characterized by loanwords from local languages.^[80]

Names

Amir Khusro c. 1300 referred to this language of his writings as Dehlavi (देहलवी / دہلوی, ‘of Delhi’) or Hindavi (हिन्दवी / ہندوی). During this period, Hindustani was used by Sufis in promulgating their message across the Indian subcontinent.^{[citation needed]} After the advent of the Mughals in the subcontinent, Hindustani acquired more Persian loanwords. Rekhta (‘mixture’), Hindi (‘Indian’), Hindustani, Hindvi, Lahori, and Dakni (amongst others) became popular names for the same language until the 18th century.^[63][81] The name Urdu (from Zabān-i-Ordu, or Orda) appeared around 1780.^[81] It is believed to have been coined by the poet Mashafi.^[82] In local literature and speech, it was also known as the Lashkari Zabān (military language) or Lashkari.^[83] Mashafi was the first person to simply modify the name Zabān-i-Ordu to Urdu.^[84]

During the British Raj, the term Hindustani was used by British officials.^[81] In 1796, John Borthwick Gilchrist published a «A Grammar of the Hindoostanee Language».^[81][85] Upon partition, India and Pakistan established national standards that they called Hindi and Urdu, respectively, and attempted to make distinct, with the result that Hindustani commonly, but mistakenly, came to be seen as a «mixture» of Hindi and Urdu.

Grierson, in his highly influential Linguistic Survey of India, proposed that the names Hindustani, Urdu, and Hindi be separated in use for different varieties of the Hindustani language, rather than as the overlapping synonyms they frequently were:

We may now define the three main varieties of Hindōstānī as follows:—Hindōstānī is primarily the language of the Upper Gangetic Doab, and is also the lingua franca of India, capable of being written in both Persian and Dēva-nāgarī characters, and without purism, avoiding alike the excessive use of either Persian or Sanskrit words when employed for literature. The name ‘Urdū’ can then be confined to that special variety of Hindōstānī in which Persian words are of frequent occurrence, and which hence can only be written in the Persian character, and, similarly, ‘Hindī’ can be confined to the form of Hindōstānī in which Sanskrit words abound, and which hence can only be written in the Dēva-nāgarī character.^[2]

Literature

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2022)

Official status

Prior to 1947, Hindustani was officially recognised by the British Raj. In the post-independence period however, the term Hindustani has lost currency and is not given any official recognition by the Indian or Pakistani governments. The language is instead recognised by its standard forms, Hindi and Urdu.^[86]

Hindi

Hindi is declared by Article 343(1), Part 17 of the Indian Constitution as the «official language (राजभाषा, rājabhāṣā) of the Union.» (In this context, «Union» means the Federal Government and not the entire country^{[citation needed]}—India has 23 official languages.) At the same time, however, the definitive text of federal laws is officially the English text and proceedings in the higher appellate courts must be conducted in English.

At the state level, Hindi is one of the official languages in 10 of the 29 Indian states and three Union Territories, respectively: Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal; Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, and Delhi.

In the remaining states, Hindi is not an official language. In states like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, studying Hindi is not compulsory in the state curriculum. However, an option to take the same as second or third language does exist. In many other states, studying Hindi is usually compulsory in the school curriculum as a third language (the first two languages being the state’s official language and English), though the intensiveness of Hindi in the curriculum varies.^[87]

Urdu

Urdu is the national language (قومی زبان, qaumi zabān) of Pakistan, where it shares official language status with English. Although English is spoken by many, and Punjabi is the native language of the majority of the population, Urdu is the lingua franca. In India, Urdu is one of the languages recognised in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India and is an official language of the Indian states of Bihar, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, and also the Union Territories of Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir. Although the government school system in most other states emphasises Modern Standard Hindi, at universities in cities such as Lucknow, Aligarh and Hyderabad, Urdu is spoken and learnt, and Saaf or Khaalis Urdu is treated with just as much respect as Shuddha Hindi.

Geographical distribution

Besides being the lingua franca of North India and Pakistan in South Asia,^[11][33] Hindustani is also spoken by many in the South Asian diaspora and their descendants around the world, including North America (e.g., in Canada, Hindustani is one of the fastest growing languages),^[88] Europe, and the Middle East.

• A sizeable population in Afghanistan, especially in Kabul, can also speak and understand Hindi-Urdu due to the popularity and influence of Bollywood films and songs in the region, as well as the fact that many Afghan refugees spent time in Pakistan in the 1980s and 1990s.^[89][90]
• Fiji Hindi was derived from the Hindustani linguistic group and is spoken widely by Fijians of Indian origin.
• Hindustani was also one of the languages that was spoken widely during British rule in Burma. Many older citizens of Myanmar, particularly Anglo-Indians and the Anglo-Burmese, still know it, although it has had no official status in the country since military rule began.
• Hindustani is also spoken in the countries of the Gulf Cooperation Council, where migrant workers from various countries live and work for several years.

Phonology

Grammar

Vocabulary

Hindi-Urdu’s core vocabulary has an Indic base, being derived from Prakrit, which in turn derives from Sanskrit,^{[20][17][36][37]} as well as a substantial amount of loanwords from Persian and Arabic (via Persian).^[77][38] Hindustani contains around 5,500 words of Persian and Arabic origin.^[91]

Hindustani also borrowed Persian prefixes to create new words. Persian affixes became so assimilated that they were used with original Khari Boli words as well.

Writing system

Historically, Hindustani was written in the Kaithi, Devanagari, and Urdu alphabets.^[63] Kaithi and Devanagari are two of the Brahmic scripts native to India, whereas the Urdu alphabet is a derivation of the Perso-Arabic script written in Nastaʿlīq, which is the preferred calligraphic style for Urdu.

Today, Hindustani continues to be written in the Urdu alphabet in Pakistan. In India, the Hindi register is officially written in Devanagari, and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet, to the extent that these standards are partly defined by their script.

However, in popular publications in India, Urdu is also written in Devanagari, with slight variations to establish a Devanagari Urdu alphabet alongside the Devanagari Hindi alphabet.

Devanagari

अ	आ	इ	ई	उ	ऊ	ए	ऐ	ओ	औ
ə	aː	ɪ	iː	ʊ	uː	eː	ɛː	oː	ɔː
क	क़	ख	ख़	ग	ग़	घ	ङ
k	q	kʰ	x	ɡ	ɣ	ɡʱ	ŋ
च	छ	ज	ज़	झ	झ़	ञ
t͡ʃ	t͡ʃʰ	d͡ʒ	z	d͡ʒʱ	ʒ	ɲ[92]
ट	ठ	ड	ड़	ढ	ढ़	ण
ʈ	ʈʰ	ɖ	ɽ	ɖʱ	ɽʱ	ɳ
त	थ	द	ध	न
t	tʰ	d	dʱ	n
प	फ	फ़	ब	भ	म
p	pʰ	f	b	bʱ	m
य	र	ल	व	श	ष	स	ह
j	ɾ	l	ʋ	ʃ	ʂ	s	ɦ

Urdu alphabet

Letter	Name of letter	Transliteration	IPA
ا	alif	a, ā, i, or u	/ə/, /aː/, /ɪ/, or /ʊ/
ب	be	b	/b/
پ	pe	p	/p/
ت	te	t	/t/
ٹ	ṭe	ṭ	/ʈ/
ث	se	s	/s/
ج	jīm	j	/d͡ʒ/
چ	che	c	/t͡ʃ/
ح	baṛī he	h̤	/h ~ ɦ/
خ	khe	k͟h	/x/
د	dāl	d	/d/
ڈ	ḍāl	ḍ	/ɖ/
ذ	zāl	z	/z/
ر	re	r	/r ~ ɾ/
ڑ	ṛe	ṛ	/ɽ/
ز	ze	z	/z/
ژ	zhe	ž	/ʒ/
س	sīn	s	/s/
ش	shīn	sh	/ʃ/
ص	su’ād	s̤	/s/
ض	zu’ād	ż	/z/
ط	to’e	t̤	/t/
ظ	zo’e	ẓ	/z/
ع	‘ain	‘	–
غ	ghain	ġ	/ɣ/
ف	fe	f	/f/
ق	qāf	q	/q/
ک	kāf	k	/k/
گ	gāf	g	/ɡ/
ل	lām	l	/l/
م	mīm	m	/m/
ن	nūn	n	/n/
ں	nūn ghunna	ṁ or m̐	/◌̃/
و	wā’o	w, v, ō, or ū	/ʋ/, /oː/, /ɔ/ or /uː/
ہ	choṭī he	h	/h ~ ɦ/
ھ	do chashmī he	h	/ʰ/ or /ʱ/
ء	hamza	‘	/ʔ/
ی	ye	y or ī	/j/ or /iː/
ے	baṛī ye	ai or ē	/ɛː/, or /eː/

Because of anglicisation in South Asia and the international use of the Latin script, Hindustani is occasionally written in the Latin script. This adaptation is called Roman Urdu or Romanised Hindi, depending upon the register used. Since Urdu and Hindi are mutually intelligible when spoken, Romanised Hindi and Roman Urdu (unlike Devanagari Hindi and Urdu in the Urdu alphabet) are mostly mutually intelligible as well.

Sample text

Colloquial Hindustani

An example of colloquial Hindustani:^[20]

• Devanagari: यह कितने का है?
• Urdu: یہ کتنے کا ہے؟
• Romanisation: Yah kitnē kā hai?
• English: How much is this?

The following is a sample text, Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in the two official registers of Hindustani, Hindi and Urdu. Because this is a formal legal text, differences in vocabulary are most pronounced.

Literary Hindi

अनुच्छेद १ — सभी मनुष्यों को गौरव और अधिकारों के विषय में जन्मजात स्वतन्त्रता और समानता प्राप्त हैं। उन्हें बुद्धि और अन्तरात्मा की देन प्राप्त है और परस्पर उन्हें भाईचारे के भाव से बर्ताव करना चाहिए।^[93]

Urdu transliteration
انُچھید ١ : سبھی منُشیوں کو گورو اور ادھکاروں کے وِشئے میں جنمجات سوَتنتْرتا پراپت ہیں۔ اُنہیں بدھی اور انتراتما کی دین پراپت ہے اور پرسپر اُنہیں بھائی چارے کے بھاؤ سے برتاؤ کرنا چاہئے۔
Transliteration (ISO 15919)
Anucchēd 1: Sabhī manuṣyō̃ kō gaurav aur adhikārō̃ kē viṣay mē̃ janmajāt svatantratā aur samāntā prāpt haĩ. Unhē̃ buddhi aur antarātmā kī dēn prāpt hai aur paraspar unhē̃ bhāīcārē kē bhāv sē bartāv karnā cāhiē.
Transcription (IPA)
səbʰiː mənʊʂjõː koː ɡɔːɾəʋ ɔːɾ ədʰɪkɑːɾõː keː ʋɪʂəj mẽː dʒənmədʒɑːt sʋətəntɾətɑː ɔːɾ səmɑːntɑː pɾɑːpt ɦɛ̃ː ‖ ʊnʰẽː bʊdːʰɪ ɔːɾ əntəɾɑːtmɑː kiː deːn pɾɑːpt ɦɛː ɔːɾ pəɾəspəɾ ʊnʰẽː bʰɑːiːtʃɑːɾeː keː bʰɑːʋ seː bəɾtɑːʋ kəɾnɑː tʃɑːɦɪeː ‖]
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1—All human-beings to dignity and rights’ matter in from-birth freedom acquired is. Them to reason and conscience’s endowment acquired is and always them to brotherhood’s spirit with behaviour to do should.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Literary Urdu

:دفعہ ١: تمام اِنسان آزاد اور حُقوق و عِزت کے اعتبار سے برابر پَیدا ہُوئے ہَیں۔ انہیں ضمِیر اور عقل ودِیعت ہوئی ہَیں۔ اِس لئے انہیں ایک دُوسرے کے ساتھ بھائی چارے کا سُلُوک کرنا چاہئے۔

Devanagari transliteration
दफ़ा १ — तमाम इनसान आज़ाद और हुक़ूक़ ओ इज़्ज़त के ऐतबार से बराबर पैदा हुए हैं। उन्हें ज़मीर और अक़्ल वदीयत हुई हैं। इसलिए उन्हें एक दूसरे के साथ भाई चारे का सुलूक करना चाहीए।
Transliteration (ISO 15919)
Dafʻah 1: Tamām insān āzād aur ḥuqūq ō ʻizzat kē iʻtibār sē barābar paidā hu’ē haĩ. Unhē̃ żamīr aur ʻaql wadīʻat hu’ī haĩ. Isli’ē unhē̃ ēk dūsrē kē sāth bhā’ī cārē kā sulūk karnā cāhi’ē.
Transcription (IPA)
dəfaː eːk təmaːm ɪnsaːn aːzaːd ɔːɾ hʊquːq oː izːət keː ɛːtəbaːɾ seː bəɾaːbəɾ pɛːdaː hʊeː hɛ̃ː ʊnʱẽː zəmiːɾ ɔːɾ əql ʋədiːət hʊiː hɛ̃ː ɪs lɪeː ʊnʱẽː eːk duːsɾeː keː saːtʰ bʱaːiː tʃaːɾeː kaː sʊluːk kəɾnaː tʃaːhɪeː
Gloss (word-to-word)
Article 1: All humans free[,] and rights and dignity’s consideration from equal born are. To them conscience and intellect endowed is. Therefore, they one another’s with brotherhood’s treatment do must.
Translation (grammatical)
Article 1—All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience. Therefore, they should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Hindustani and Bollywood

The predominant Indian film industry Bollywood, located in Mumbai, Maharashtra uses Modern Standard Hindi, colloquial Hindustani, Bombay Hindi, Urdu,^[94] Awadhi, Rajasthani, Bhojpuri, and Braj Bhasha, along with Punjabi and with the liberal use of English or Hinglish in scripts and soundtrack lyrics.

Film titles are often screened in three scripts: Latin, Devanagari and occasionally Perso-Arabic. The use of Urdu or Hindi in films depends on the film’s context: historical films set in the Delhi Sultanate or Mughal Empire are almost entirely in Urdu, whereas films based on Hindu mythology or ancient India make heavy use of Hindi with Sanskrit vocabulary.

See also

• Hindustan (Indian subcontinent)
• Languages of India
• Languages of Pakistan
• List of Hindi authors
• List of Urdu writers
• Hindi–Urdu transliteration
• Uddin and Begum Hindustani Romanisation

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links

• Bolti Dictionary (Hindustani)
• Hamari Boli (Hindustani)
• Khan Academy (Hindi-Urdu): academic lessons taught in Hindi-Urdu
• Hindustani as an anxiety between Hindi–Urdu Commitment
• Hindi? Urdu? Hindustani? Hindi-Urdu?
• Hindi/Urdu-English-Kalasha-Khowar-Nuristani-Pashtu Comparative Word List
• GRN Report for Hindustani
• Hindustani Poetry
• Hindustani online resources
• National Language Authority (Urdu), Pakistan (muqtadera qaumi zaban)